Rise of the Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman Empire was founded and rose during a period of history that began with establishing the Ottoman principality in c. 1299 and concluded in c. 1453. The Ottoman Dynasty established a governmental entity in the north-western Anatolian area of Bithynia during this time. Its growth from a minor principality on the Byzantine border to an empire included Anatolia, the Middle East, the Balkans, and North Africa. As a result, the "Proto-Imperial Era" has been coined to define this period in the Empire's history. The Ottomans were just one of many competing states in the region during most of this time. To keep control of their domain, they enlisted the help of local warlords Ghazis and vassals. The Ottoman sultans had amassed enough personal power and authority by the middle of the fifteenth century to construct a consolidated imperial empire. Sultan Mehmed II was responsible for bringing this process to fruition. The conquest of Constantinople in 1453 is seen as the symbolic moment when the Ottoman state transitioned from a mere principality to an empire, marking a significant turning point in its history. The Ottomans' success could not be attributed to a single element, and these factors changed throughout time as the Ottomans responded to changing conditions.

Because of the scarcity of evidence, historians have found it particularly difficult to analyze the earlier portion of this period in the fourteenth century. For example, there may not be a single written record from Osman I's reign and very little throughout the century. Furthermore, the Ottomans did not begin writing their history until the fourteenth century, more than a century after many recount events. Thus, in examining the accounts found in these later chronicles, historians face a significant task in distinguishing between fact and myth. One historian has even argued that explaining the early period of Ottoman history is impossible.

Anatolia was divided into two relatively powerful states at the beginning of the thirteenth century: (1) the Byzantine Empire in the west and (2) the Anatolian Seljuks in the central plateau. The Mongol invasion and destruction of the Seljuks after the Battle of Köse Dağ in 1243 and the Byzantine Palaiologos dynasty's reconquest of Constantinople in 1261 shattered the balance between them. As a result, Byzantium's focus turned away from the Anatolian frontier. Mongol pressure pushed nomadic Turkish tribes westward into Byzantine territory, which was now inadequately protected. The Mongols, particularly the Ilkhanate, ruled over Anatolian Beyliks for the following two centuries. All coins struck in Anatolia during this period depict Ilkhanate monarchs. As Turkish Anatolian beyliks were founded both in historically Byzantine regions and in the territory of the fragmenting Seljuk Sultanate, Anatolia began to slide from Byzantine authority in the 1260s.

By the end of the thirteenth century, political authority in western Anatolia was extremely fractured, split between locally established rulers, tribal groups, holy figures, and warlords, with Byzantine and Seljuk authority ever-present but fast eroding. Several historians have referred to the political entities of the thirteenth and fourteenth-century Anatolia as Taifas due to their dispersion of authority (petty kings). The ability of these groupings to draw military troops was crucial to their influence. In addition, Western Anatolia was a hive of raiding activity at the time. Warriors switched allegiances at will to whichever chief seemed best capable of providing them with loot and glory opportunities.

The Ottoman dynasty is named after Osman I, the Ottoman polity's first monarch. According to later Ottoman tradition, he was derived from a Turkic tribe that came out of Central Asia after the Mongol Conquests. Osman's father was named Ertuğrul, as indicated by coins produced during his reign. However, the details are far too mythical to be taken at face value. Therefore, the Ottoman dynasty's origins are unknown. However, it is known that it was founded by Turks from Central Asia who came to Anatolia while under Mongol rule.

Similarly, nothing is known about how Osman formed his principality (beylik), like the sources, none of which offer various contradictory origin legends. What is definite is that Osman rose to power as the ruler of a minor principality based on the town of Söğüt in the north-western Anatolian area of Bithynia in the late thirteenth century. Osman's rise to power is highlighted by the issuance of coins in his name. However, in the last two centuries, he had predecessors who produced coins in the name of the Illkhanates. Osman's kingdom was founded on the tribal human resources of nomadic Turkish groups, which he commanded in raids against the region's Byzantine possessions. This Ottoman clan was formed based on political expediency rather than blood relationships. As a result, it was open to anybody who wanted to join, including persons of Byzantine descent. Several notable warrior families, including the Köse Mihal family, commanded the Ottoman effort. A Greek Christian founded it. Hranislav family was from a Bulgarian family. Thus, from the beginning, Islam and Persian culture were integral components of Ottoman identity. 

Gaza and Gazis in Primary Ottoman Antiquity

In 1938, the Austrian historian Paul Wittek published "The Rise of the Ottoman Empire," a seminal work in which he argued that the early Ottoman empire was built on an idea of Islamic holy war against non-Muslims. Gaza was the name of the battle, and a gazi was a warrior who fought in it. For much of the twentieth century, Wittek's concept was influential. As a consequence, historians have painted the early Ottomans as fanatical religious soldiers dedicated to spreading Islam. Since the 1980s, historians have been more critical of Wittek's argument. Scholars now understand that the terms gaza and gazi did not have purely religious overtones for the early Ottomans. Instead, they were frequently employed in a secular sense to refer to raids simply.

Furthermore, the early Ottomans were neither rigorous orthodox Muslims nor averse to working with non-Muslims. Several of the first Ottoman kings' associates were non-Muslims or recent converts. During the fourteenth century, the concept of holy war existed. It was, however, just one of several reasons that influenced Ottoman behaviour. Ottoman writers began to portray the early Ottomans as fanatical Islamic soldiers in the fifteenth century to offer a noble origin for their dynasty, which had built an intercontinental Islamic empire.

The emergence of the Black Death in Anatolia and the Balkans after 1347 had a significant impact. Urban areas and inhabited areas were decimated, but nomadic communities were spared the brunt of the damage. Shortly after, the first Ottoman assaults into the Balkans began. Thus, plague-related depopulation was probably certainly a major element in the early Ottoman advance into the Balkans. In addition, it contributed to the Byzantine Empire's decline and depopulation of Constantinople.

The monarchs' powers were significantly more limited before the Ottomans constructed a centralized form of governance in the middle of the fifteenth century. It was primarily reliant on support coalitions and alliances formed among the Empire's many power holders, notably Turkic tribal chiefs and Balkan allies and vassals. Under the leadership of Osman I, the Ottoman polity was originally established towards the end of the thirteenth century. It had a tribal structure rather than a complicated administrative structure. Its rulers were faced with the task of governing an ever-increasing populace. The Ottomans used the Seljuks of Rum as governmental models and the Illkhanates as military fighting models. By 1324, they were able to produce Seljuk-style Persian-language bureaucratic documents.

The military activities of frontier soldiers, of whom the Ottoman ruler was first the only primus inter pares, propelled the early Ottoman state's expansion. Much of the state's centralization took place in defiance of these frontier warriors, who despised Ottoman attempts to govern them. In the end, the Ottomans were able to utilize gazi military prowess while gradually subjugating them. The early Ottomans were known for the low tax rates imposed on their subjects. This represented a pragmatic necessity to secure the loyalty of freshly captured communities and an ideological concern for their well-being. The Ottoman state became more centralized in the fifteenth century. During this period, the tax load increased. The Ottomans' capacity to maintain the Empire across generations was a key component in their success. The sons of a deceased sovereign were frequently dispersed among other Turkic clans. Thus, the Ottomans kept the Empire together with a single successor continuously.

State Centralism

The migration of Muslim experts from Central Anatolia is strongly linked to the centralization process. The Seljuks of Rum established an urban and bureaucratic Turkish culture. The Çandarlı family was very influential. It provided the early Ottomans with multiple Grand Viziers and affected their institutional development. Kara Halil, the leader of the Çandarlı family, pushed Murad I to impose a one-fifth tax on slaves captured in war. It was known as the pençik after 1376. The Ottoman monarchs now had a pool of workforce from whom to build a new personal army. The Janissaries (yeniçeri) were the name of the army. Such actions irritated the gazi. They aided Ottoman military victories. They also caused long-term tensions within the country. The office of the military judge (Kazasker) was also established during Murad I's rule. It was a sign of the growing social divide between the developing warrior elite and the rest of society. Murad I also established the custom of appointing special frontier warriors. The Ottoman rulers were no longer just primus inter pares with such appointment power. Murad became the first Ottoman ruler to use the title of the Sultan to declare his new rank openly.

At the start of the fourteenth century, Osman's army was mostly made up of mounted men. He utilized them in ambushes, raids, and hit-and-run strikes. It enabled him to command the Bithynian countryside. However, he didn't have the resources to perform sieges at first. Bursa, the Ottomans' first major city, surrendered under the fear of famine rather than an assault after a long blockade. The Ottomans perfected siege warfare techniques during the reigns of Orhan, and Murad I. Osman's warriors hailed from a wide range of backgrounds. They were also known as gazis and akncs. They were drawn to his achievements and joined in the hopes of plundering and glory. The majority of Osman's early adherents were Muslim Turks from different tribes. Others were Christians or new converts to Islam who were of Byzantine ancestry. The Ottomans first used gunpowder weapons in the 1380s. They were regularly deploying cannons in siege warfare by the 1420s. Cannons were also utilized to defend fortresses. In 1444, shore batteries enabled the Ottomans to circumvent a Crusader blockade of the Dardanelles. Handheld weapons were also in use during the period.

By the fifteenth century, the Ottoman court was actively encouraging literary output, drawing on the ancient literary legacy of previous Islamic courts to the east. The poet Ahmedi wrote the first extant chronicle of Ottoman history ever written. It was intended to be delivered to Sultan Bayezid I at the time. However, after he died in 1402, it was rewritten for his son Süleyman Çelebi. This work, named "The Book of Alexander," was part of a genre known as "mirror for princes." The monarch was given advice and direction on statecraft. Rather than offering a historical account of the dynasty's history, Ahmedi's purpose was to attack the Sultan indirectly by portraying his forefathers as model rulers, in contrast to Bayezid's alleged deviation. Ahmedi was particularly critical of Bayezid's military efforts in Anatolia against fellow Muslims. As a result, he painted his forefathers as completely devoted to holy war against the Christian Balkan republics.

Osman I

The origins of Osman are unknown. Before the beginning of the fourteenth century, nearly nothing is known about his life. The year 1299 is commonly cited as the start of his rule. On the other hand, this date has no historical significance and is entirely symbolic. He was the chief of a group of Turkish pastoral tribes by 1300. He ruled a small territory around the town of Söğüt in the north-western Anatolian province of Bithynia due to this. He launched raids against the neighbouring Byzantine Empire regularly. After his victory over a Byzantine army at the Battle of Bapheus in 1301 or 1302, he rallied troops to his cause. Because he died in 1323-4, Osman's military action was mostly limited to raiding. The Ottomans had not yet perfected effective siege warfare strategies despite his best known for his raids on the Byzantines. Osman was also involved in numerous military clashes with Tatar tribes and the neighbouring principality of Germiyan.

Osman was skilled at developing political and commercial ties with factions in the area. They were both Muslim and Christian. Early on, he enlisted the help of several important figures, including Köse Mihal. Köse Mihal was a Byzantine village chief whose ancestors commanded supremacy among Ottoman border troops. He was notable since he was a Christian Greek who later converted to Islam. Osman's major historical position demonstrates his readiness to work with non-Muslims and include them in his political endeavour. Osman I bolstered his legitimacy by marrying Sheikh Edebali's daughter. Sheikh Edebali was a well-known religious figure in the area. Later, Ottoman writers extended the story by claiming that Osman had a dream while visiting Edebali. His ancestors were prophesied to preside over a great kingdom.

Orhan

After Osman's death, his son Orhan took over as Ottoman leader. Orhan was in charge of the conquering of Bithynia's principal cities. Bursa fell to the Ottomans in 1326, and the remainder of the region's towns fell soon after. By 1324, the Ottomans had already adopted Seljuk administrative practices. They'd mastered the art of minting currency and using siege tactics. The Ottomans began to recruit Islamic academics from the east to serve as administrators and judges under Orhan. In 1331, Iznik built the first university (medrese). In 1345-1346, Orhan also conquered the Turkish principality of Karesi. The Ottoman military incorporated the veteran Karesi soldiers. They proved to be a great asset in succeeding Balkan battles.

Orhan tied the knot with Theodora. She was the daughter of John VI Cantacuzenus, a Byzantine prince. Orhan publicly backed John VI in the overthrow of Emperor John V Palaeologus in 1346. In 1352, when John VI became co-emperor, he encouraged Orhan to invade the Gallipoli peninsula. Following it, in 1354, the Ottomans established their first permanent fortress in Europe at Castle. Orhan decided to wage war against Europe. The Anatolian Turks settled in and around Gallipoli to secure it as a base for military operations against the Byzantines and Bulgarians in Thrace. Within a decade, Ottoman soldiers had conquered most of eastern Thrace. Heavy colonization was used to bring it permanently under Orhan's control. The Ottomans gained a considerable edge over their rival Turkish princes in Anatolia by controlling the passages to Europe. Conquests on the Balkan frontier may suddenly provide them with enormous glory and wealth.

Murad

Murad's first significant campaign was the conquest of Adrianople, a Byzantine city, in 1362. In 1363, he renamed it Edirne and proclaimed it his new capital. Murad signified his intentions to continue Ottoman expansion in Southeast Europe by relocating his capital from Bursa in Anatolia to that recently conquered city in Thrace. Most Christian Europeans saw the Ottoman presence in Thrace as just the latest unpleasant episode in a long series of turbulent occurrences in the Balkans before the capture of Edirne. They realized the Ottomans meant to stay in Europe when Murad I named Edirne as his capital. Murad ruled over most of Thrace by 1370. This brought him into close contact with Bulgaria and Uglješa holdings in southeastern Serbia. Uglješa was the region's most powerful Serb king. Byzantium, which was vulnerable to the Turks due to a lack of food, refused to cooperate. Following Ivan Aleksandar's death early that year, Bulgaria was divided into two kingdoms: the "Empire" of Vidin, governed by Stratsimir, and Tsar Ivan Shishman, who dominated central Bulgaria from Turnovo.

Bayezid

After his father, Murad was assassinated, Bayezid I ascended to the throne. In a fit of wrath over the invasion, he ordered the execution of all Serbian captives. Beyazid earned the nickname Yldrm, or lightning bolt, for the speed with which his Empire grew. Bayezid wasted little time in furthering Ottoman conquests in the Balkans. After his triumph, he went on a raiding spree across Serbia and southern Albania, driving the majority of the local princes into vassalage. To safeguard the southern portion of the Vardar-Morava route and lay the groundwork for a long-term expansion westward to the Adriatic coast.

Ottoman Interregnum

Following the fall at Ankara, the Empire descended into disarray. The Sultan's political power was shattered as Mongols roamed free in Anatolia. Following Beyazid's capture, his remaining sons fought each other throughout the Ottoman Interregnum. The vassal Christian Balkan nations enjoyed a brief period of semi-independence during the Ottoman Interregnum. One of the late Sultan's sons, Suleyman, took control of the Ottoman city of Edirne and declared himself monarch. His brothers, on the other hand, refused to acknowledge him. To strengthen his power, he formed agreements with Byzantium, to which Thessaloniki was returned, and with Venice in 1403. Finally, his brother Musa defeated and murdered him in 1410. Musa's younger brother Mehmed, who had liberated himself from Mongol vassalage and held Ottoman Anatolia, challenged him for sole control of the Ottoman Empire.

Mehmed I

When Mehmed Çelebi triumphed in 1413, he crowned himself Mehmed I in Edirne. He was tasked with restoring the Ottoman Empire to its former splendour. However, the interruption had wreaked havoc on the Empire. Many of the Balkan Christian nations had broken free from Ottoman rule. The conflict had taken a toll on the land, particularly in Anatolia. From Bursa to Adrianople, Mehmed relocated the capital. In the Balkans, he was confronted with a complicated political scenario. In dealing with the problem, Mehmed tended to use diplomacy rather than aggressiveness. The rest of Mehmed's reign was devoted to reconstructing Ottoman state structures broken by the interregnum. Murad, one of Mehmed's sons, succeeded him as Sultan when he died in 1421.

Murad II

Murad II spent his early years on the throne putting down rivals and rebellions, particularly Serb uprisings. He was also having issues at home. He defeated his uncle Mustafa Çelebi and brother Küçük Mustafa's rebels. Murad II besieged Constantinople for several months in 1422, only to remove it after forcing Manuel II Palaiologos, the Byzantine emperor, to pay further tribute. Murad moved quickly, laying siege to Constantinople and dispatching forces to Salonika. The Venetians had received reinforcements by water, but the outcome was lost when the Ottomans invaded the city and the Venetians withdrew to their ships. Murad suffered a setback as a result of the Battle of Salonika. Serbia and Hungary joined the Venetian alliance. Murad defeated Wladislaus III of Poland's Polish–Hungarian army, led by Janos Hunyadi, at the Battle of Varna on November 11, 1444. Murad was restored in 1446 with the help of the Janissaries. In 1448, a new peace deal was made, granting the Empire Wallachia, Bulgaria, and Albania.

Mehmed II

Following Murad's death in 1451, Mehmed II ascended to the Ottoman throne once more. But, by conquest and annexation of the emirate of Karamanid, as well as the renewal of peace treaties with Venice and Hungary, Mehmed II demonstrated his military and political abilities and was quickly embraced by the Ottoman court's noble class. Mehmed prepared for his assault on the Byzantine capital for two years. He constructed a navy to block the city off from outside assistance by sea. Urban, a Hungarian gunsmith, sold him an armoury of huge cannons. The Venetians were unable to intervene on behalf of the Byzantines due to a commercial arrangement with Venice. By becoming engrossed in internecine warfare and political struggles, the rest of Western Europe unknowingly aided Mehmed's goals. When the bankrupt Byzantine Empire asked Mehmed to quadruple the tribute in exchange for detaining an Ottoman claimant to the throne in 1451, he used the request to cancel all treaties with the Byzantine Empire. Mehmed ordered that preparations be prepared for the siege of Constantinople on April 15, 1452. Mehmed besieged Constantinople in April 1453.