Rise of Genghis Khan

The circumstances leading up to Genghis Khan's birth as Temüjin in 1162 culminated in 1206 when he was awarded the title "Genghis Khan" (occasionally "Chingis Khan"), which translates to "Universal Ruler" or "Oceanic Ruler."

The Mongols were characterized as a branch of the Shiwei, who were vassals of the Göktürks from 553 until 745, in the Tang dynasty's dynastic history. Until the tenth century, when the Mongols of the Shiwei relocated to the Argun River and became vassals of the Khitans, the Shiwei dwelt in the Lesser Khingan Range. In the 11th century, the Mongols proceeded westward until they reached the Onon and Kherlen rivers. Alternatively, according to Mongol legend, they were derived from a blue-grey wolf born by Heaven and a fallow dow. They traversed a lake together on their way to Burkhan Khaldun, where they gave birth to a human boy. Bat Tsagan, a human male, was the progenitor of the Mongols. Dobun Mergen married a young Khorilar woman called Alan Gho'aGho'a in the 11th generation of Bat Tsagan'sTsagan's lineage. Alan Gho'aGho'a gave parturition to Bodonchar Munkhag, who created the Borjigin clan when Dobun Mergen died. Kaidu, Bodonchar'sBodonchar's great-great-grandson, was the first khagan to "reign all the Mongols" and was born somewhere in the 11th century. In a drunken outburst, his grandson Khabul Khan was called to the Jin court and tugged the Jin emperor's beard. The emperor originally chose to spare Khabul'sKhabul's life but then changed his mind and ordered his officers to apprehend him. The Jin assailants were ambushed and murdered, and Kaidu died soon after, denying Jin any chance of retaliation. Ambaghai managed to provide a messenger reverse back to his relatives before being caught, imploring them to fight the Tatars to the death. Instead, Ambaghai was left to die after being nailed to a wooden donkey. Khabul'sKhabul's grandson Yesugei stole a Khongirad woman as his wife from the Merkits during Ambaghai'sAmbaghai's captivity in the 1150s or 1160s. He took part in a series of attacks against the Tatars led by Hotula Khan. After returning from one of his excursions, his wife gave birth to Temüjin, who would later become Genghis Khan.

According to Lindsey Stephen Pow, "The Mongols acquired deep hate for Jin due to murders and crimes committed by them in the late twelfth century, according to the Mengda Beilu. However, it is impossible to if these stories were based on true events or were utilized as propaganda against the JihatredhingKhan, who sought to rally other tribes to his cause by appealing to their common hatred of Jin. When Chinggisn met the Khitan prince Yelü Chucai, for example, he stated that his battle against Jin was retaliation for the Jin'sJin's acts against the Khitan people."

Yesugei, the head of the Borjigin clan, and Hoelun of the Olkhonud tribe gave birth to Genghis Khan as Temüjin in 1162. Yesugei took Temüjin east across Tatar territory in 1171 to arrange a future marriage between his son and Börte with the Khongirad, closely linked to his wife's Olkhonud tribe. Temüjin was left with the Khongirad to learn their customs, but the Tatars poisoned Yesugei on his way back. Temüjin set out for his father from the Khongirad, but he came too late to see him alive. His father's supporters dispersed, leaving Hoelun to care for her children alone. She moved them to the Khentii Mountains, where they eked out a living by fishing and root grubbing for several years. Except for three flashpoints, nothing is known about Temüjin's life during these years. First, Temüjin murdered his half-brother Begter for stealing a fish at one time. He subsequently became a Taichiud prisoner and spent time in a cage before escaping with a tribesman named Suldus Shira. In 1173, he married Jamukha of the Jadaran (Jajirad) clan and became his blood brother (anda). The Jadaran clan claimed descent from the Borjigids, while some claim they were an illegitimate branch of dubious origin.

Early Leadership (1177 – 1191)

Temüjin returned to the Khongirad in 1177 and married Börte, but she was kidnapped by Merkits shortly after. Temüjin collected 20,000 troops and solicited his blood brother Jamukha and Toghrul, the Keraites' khan. They worked together to help Temüjin reclaim Börte. It is unclear how she was reunited with her family or whether the military activity was involved. According to one version of events, united troops routed the Merkit, and she was rescued along with a large amount of loot. However, this might be a composite storey mixing a later military battle with an earlier incident. Börte gave birth shortly after, and despite the possibility that a Merkit fathered the kid, Temüjin chose to raise him as his own, calling him Jochi. From 1177 until 1191, nothing is known about Temüjin's life save that he battled the Taichiud, Salji'ut, Khadagin, and Tatars with mixed success. After being beaten by the Taichiud, one of the clans following Temüjin finally deserted and joined Jamukha. There was a drought in Mongolia in the 1180s, which intensified tribal warfare, although Temüjin only had a minor role in these events.

Attack on the Merkit (1191)

The attack on the Merkit that led to Börte's rescue might have been part of a separate campaign in 1191 that was misunderstood in the foundations. In the year of 1191, Jamukha, Temüjin, and Toghrul and his brother Jakha Gambhu launched an offensive on the Merkit. Temüjin and Toghrul, on the other hand, were three days late reaching the rendezvous place, which enraged Jamukha. As a result, the friendly forces, numbering in the thousands, took a diversion east to attack the German camp from the northeast. A fisherman noticed them and alerted the Merkit, but the Merkit failed to make the necessary preparations and dispersed.

Battle of Dalan Baljut (1193)

After the fight, Temüjin and Jamukha stayed together. They dispatched an embassy to the Khadagin and Salji'ut at one time to attempt to persuade them to side with them against the Taichiud. However, when the retainers of the two camps battled over horse stealing in 1193, Temüjin and Jamukha separated. Temüjin arrived at Jamukha with 41 tribal chiefs and 10,000 soldiers, and his people voted him khan the next day. Temüjin's power scared the Taichiud, so they joined Jamukha. Jamukha gathered 30,000 soldiers in 1193 and marched in an arc from the north, flanking Temüjin's stronghold. Both sides were closely matched, although Temüjin's side lost somewhat more than Jamukha's and was forced to retire to Jerene, a defensible pass near the Onon River. Despite Jamukha's triumph, his supporters were so appalled by his treatment of prisoners that they deserted to Temüjin, taking 10,000 soldiers with them. Jamukha could no longer fight Temüjin on the upper Kherlen River with less than 20,000 soldiers at his side, so he fled farther east.

Initial Victory over the Tatars (1195 – 1196)

The Jurchen Jin dynasty joined forces with the Tatars to invade the Khongirad in 1195. The subsequent military action was a success, but Zuxu, the Tatar commander, disagreed over how the loot should be distributed. In the next year, a communication breakdown resulted in a Jin attack on the Tatars. Wanyan Xiang, the Jin commander, dispatched a vanguard group to the Kherlen River. They fought off Tatar soldiers for three days before the Jin army's main body came and destroyed them. However, the Khongirad had not forgotten about their prior feuds. They penetrated deep into Jin territory on February 4, 1196, and destroyed a Jin forces.

Meanwhile, Toghrul and Temüjin intercepted the Tatars escaping Jin troops. Because they were far weaker than the opposing army, the besieged Tatars decided to fight in a constructed barrier rather than on the open field. The Tatars were completely defeated in the ensuing brawl. Toghrul and Temüjin afterwards met with Jin authorities, who were delighted with the Tatars' devastation and bestowed titles on them. Temüjin charmed one of the Jin officials and a Khitan named Yelü Ahai, so much that he and his brother Tuhua defected to him in 1203.  Toghrul was deposed by his brother Erke Qara, backed by Inanch Bilge khan of the Naimans, soon after the Tatars were defeated. Temüjin's camp was assaulted by a Naiman army that penetrated Keraite territory and caused considerable damage. Toghrul took refuge in the Qara Khitai. In the same year, the defeated Tatar Zuxu surrendered to Jin and revolted again. In 1198, Zuxu again bowed to Jin, but he died shortly after. To defend the sedentary people in the north, Wanyan Xiang ordered the building of vast defensive structures. There were no further Jin expeditions against the steppe nomads that were as successful as the one in 1196.

Consolidating Power (1196 – 1199)

Temüjin requested aid from the Jurkins to launch a combined expedition against the Naimans, fearful of the Naimans' growing might. The Jurkins killed Temüjin's envoys in retaliation. Temüjin invaded them in 1196 and conquered the Jurkins, including Muqali, who became one of the Mongol Empire's most powerful generals. Erke Qara, Toghrul's brother, joined Temüjin after assisting him in driving the Merkit away. With the aid of Temüjin, Toghrul returned in 1197 and re-established himself as the Keraites' leader. Temüjin wiped out the last Jurkins and killed their commanders in the winter of 1197–1198. Between 1198 and 1199, Temüjin and Toghrul preyed on the Merkit, driving them further north. Toghrul was extremely annoyed at Toghrul's refusal to share the gains with Temüjin.

Confronting the Naimans (1199)

When Inanch Bilge khan died in 1198, his two sons, Tayang Khan and Buyruq khan, divided the Naimans. Temüjin, Toghrul, and Jamukha launched an attack against Buyruq west of the Altai Mountains in 1199. Tayang dispatched a troop under Kökse Sabraq to intercept Toghrul and kidnap half of his people, alarmed by the eastern invaders. Temüjin dispatched Muqali, Borokhula, Chilaun, and Bo'orchu to aid the Keraites. They came just in time to reverse the battle's tide, routing the Naimans. Despite their combat win, the united forces headed east, presumably for fear of the two Naiman groups reuniting and uniting against them.

Defeating the Tatars and Naimans (1200 – 1202)

Temüjin and Toghrul crossed the Onon River into Taichiud land in 1200 and conquered the Taichiud in combat. Temüjin pursued the fleeing Taichiud to a river bridge, where a surprise counterattack wounded him. The fight lasted until the Taichiud were beaten the next day. Following that, the Khadagin, Salji'ut, Dorben, Tatar, and Khongirad tribes banded together to fight Temüjin. Toghrul and Temüjin were defeated in a fierce battle that concluded with Toghrul and Temüjin retreating. Temüjin regained his losses and returned to wage war on the Tatars and Dorben while his brother Qasar attacked the Khongirad while Toghrul was bedridden for two years. Temüjin's foes, particularly the Khongirad, rallied around Jamukha and dubbed him gur-khan in defiance of Temüjin. In 1201, Jamukha's armies were defeated by Temüjin, resulting in short desertion by the Khongirad, who returned to combat Temüjin the next year.  Temüjin changed the procedures for sharing loot in 1202. Several of his relatives objected to the new distribution method and withdrew 10,000 soldiers. Temüjin finished wiping out the Tatars in the same year. He planned to execute all of the Tatar captives, most likely retaliation for his father's death. Still, his half-brother Belgutai betrayed the information to the inmates, who revolted and barricaded themselves on a hill. Temüjin's brother Qasar, whose Tatar wife was also a captive, concealed 500 people meant to be murdered. Buyruq Khan gathered a vast coalition army of 70,000 men, including Jamukha and the Oirats. Working together, they moved on Temüjin and Toghrul's position at Buir Lake. Temüjin and Toghrul retreated behind Jin's defensive walls. Both sides' soldiers were dispersed, and the weather turned bad, with heavy snowfall and strong winds pelting the battlefield. Buryuq chose to retreat, but he became stranded in an open field. The coalition army became disorganized. Jamukha took advantage of the occasion to raid his allies' belongings. The Battle of Köyiten became renowned as a result of this.

Toghrul's Betrayal (1203)

Senggüm, Toghrul's son, persuaded his father to turn against Temüjin. They intended to ambush him on his way to a wedding between the two families to cement their union, but Temüjin was alerted ahead of time, and the scheme was thwarted. With Toghrul and Jamukha seizing the initiative and attacking Qasar's troops, a fight ultimately defeated him. Qasar managed to flee, but the majority of his family was apprehended. They then moved on Temüjin from the south, shocking him, but Temüjin was able to retreat to a smaller enclosure, negating the enemy's greater numbers. Senggüm was wounded in combat, causing confusion among his soldiers and allowing Temüjin to flee. Toghrul returned to camp after deciding not to pursue. The Battle of Qalaqaljit Sands became renowned as a result of this. Toghrul's allies, including Jamukha, chose to break away from him. When Toghrul found out, he assaulted them, and several of them deserted to Temüjin as a result. By the fall of 1203, the position between the two sides had been reversed, with Temüjin's forces being over 40,000 and Toghrul's forces numbering barely half that. Temüjin scouted Toghrul's camp under the guise of Qasar's defection. Temüjin's troops rode through the night and encircled the Keraite camp after Toghrul's position was determined. Before surrendering, the Keraites battled for three days. Toghrul escaped the combat only to be murdered by a Naiman named Qori Sübei, who mistook him for someone else. Senggüm made his way to Western Xia.

Defeating Tayang Khan (1204)

Tayang khan's Naimans were joined by Jamukha, the Merkits, and Keraites in fighting Temüjin. Temüjin had amassed a force of 66,000 fighting men at this time, and in May 1204 dispatched the majority of the west to meet Tayang in the Battle of Chakirmaut. Although Naiman scouts were reportedly disappointed by Temüjin's forces, Tayang desired to retire beyond the Altai Mountains and conduct an attrition battle. Tayang's son Kuchlug and his senior officer pleaded against it, but Tayang was persuaded to attack Temüjin. When the opposition coalition troops came face to face with Temüjin's men, they crossed the Orkhon River but were forced to retreat to the foot of a mountain. Temüjin ordered his army to fight in a "chisel" battle formation in a "lake" combat configuration. As if to outflank the Naimans, his army dispersed in a long line, prompting the Naimans to disperse their forces as well. Temüjin launched a frontal assault, followed by the main army headed by Qasar, pushing the Naimans back to a mountain after deceiving them into thinking he was heading for a flanking operation. Jamukha fled the Naimans, who turned down Temüjin's offer of surrender and continued fighting until they were all dead. Tayang was defeated in combat. Kuchlug had been sent to guard a back camp. Kuchlug escaped with a few companions when Temüjin's army arrived. Soon after, Jamukha was apprehended, brought to Temüjin, and executed.

Defeating Toqtoa (1205)

When Temüjin advanced against Toqtoa, his Merkits retreated southwest of Khovd and moved even further west. West of the Altai, Toqtoa and Kuchlug joined Buyruq Khan. Temüjin believed the Uvas Merkits were too weak to be of much use, so they revolted and took some supplies with them. By 1205, Merkits had either surrendered or were slain. Töregene, who married gedei, was one of the captives. When her husband died in 1241, she became regent of the Mongol Empire.

Raiding Western Xia (1205)

Temüjin launched his first major attack on a non-Mongol power, the Western Xia, in April 1205. The Khitan, Yelü Ahai, who had deserted to Temüjin a few years before, led the trip, purportedly to pursue Toghrul's son, Senggum. The Xia forces did not dare to engage the Mongols in the open field and did not make a single move against them. The Mongols marched uncontested over the plains, ravaging the countryside and demolishing a few strongholds. The Xia repaired the devastated areas once they left in June. The Xia prepared a counter-raid in December, but no action was carried out. Senggum was slain in battle not long after.

At the Onon River in the summer of 1206, the shaman Kokochu declared Temüjin Genghis Khan (Chinggis Khan) the "Universal Ruler." Genghis Khan restructured Mongol culture into a fighting force centred on mingghan (thousand-man units). These were not just military groups but also home units that were utilized to collect taxes. His family, known as the Altan urugh or Golden Kin, was granted land and these mingghan. A 10,000-strong bodyguard corps called the keshig was established from leaders' sons to secure Genghis' allegiance. During the winter, Genghis attacked and murdered Buyruq when he was out hawking. Toqtoa and Kuchlug rushed to the Erdis River to flee. Genghis dispatched his son Jochi west of Lake Baikal in 1207 to conquer the Oirats and Kyrgyz tribes. They readily submitted, bringing 20,000 soldiers into the Mongol army.