Genghis Khan (Temüjin): Founder of the Mongol Empire

Genghis Khan, also known as Temüjin, was the founder and first Great Khan (Emperor) of the Mongol Empire, which after his death, evolved to become the world's greatest continuous empire. By uniting several nomadic tribes in Northeast Asia, he rose to power. He undertook campaigns against the Qara Khitai, Khwarezmia, and the Western Xia and Jin kingdoms and assaults into Medieval Georgia, Kievan Rus', and Volga Bulgaria during his reign. Genghis Khan's conquests were portrayed as catastrophic destruction on an unprecedented scale by contemporary and modern sources, resulting in huge demographic shifts and a sharp population reduction due to mass extermination and starvation. The number of citizens slaughtered during Genghis Khan's genocide is estimated to be over four million.

On the other hand, Buddhist Uyghurs of the Kingdom of Qocho saw Khan as a liberator, having freely abandoned the Qara Khitai realm to become Mongol vassals. Due to the Mongol Empire's amazing dissemination of culture, science, and technological innovations, Genghis Khan was also portrayed positively by early Renaissance sources. The Mongol Empire controlled a large chunk of Central Asia and China by the time he died. Genghis Khan is often regarded as one of history's greatest conquerors, owing to his extraordinary military achievements. Before his death, Genghis Khan named Ögedei Khan as his heir. His realm was then divided into khanates by his grandchildren. After defeating the Western Xia, Genghis Khan died in 1227. His remains were buried at an unknown location in Mongolia per his wish. By conquering or forming vassal governments in all of modern-day China, Korea, the Caucasus, Central Asia, and considerable areas of Eastern Europe and Southwest Asia, his descendants extended the Mongol Empire across most of Eurasia. Many of these invasions were re-enactments of previous large-scale massacres of indigenous communities. As a result, in local histories, Genghis Khan and his Empire had a fearsome reputation. In addition to his military achievements, Genghis Khan aided the Mongol Empire in other ways. He ordered that the Mongol Empire's writing system be changed to the Uyghur script. In the Mongol Empire, he also promoted meritocracy and religious tolerance, uniting the nomadic tribes of Northeast Asia. Mongolians today revere him as the country's founding father. He's also credited with bringing the Silk Road together under a single political umbrella. This made communication and trade between Northeast Asia, Muslim Southwest Asia, and Christian Europe relatively easy, broadening the cultural horizons of all three regions.

Lineage

On his father's side, Genghis Khan was related to Khabul Khan, Ambaghai, and Hotula Khan, the Khamag Mongol confederation's leaders and successors of Bodonchar Munkhag (c. 900). Khabul Khan was defeated when the Jurchen Jin dynasty switched support from the Mongols to the Tatars in 1161. Yesügei (chief of the Kiyat-Borjigin clan and nephew of Ambaghai and Hotula Khan) succeeded Genghis Khan as the ruler of the Mongol tribe. The opposing Tayichi'ud clan, derived straight from Ambaghai, vied for this position. After the Tatars became too dominant in 1161, Jin transferred their allegiance to the Keraites.

Birth

Due to a lack of contemporary written sources, nothing is known about Genghis Khan's early childhood. The scant materials available that shed light on this period generally contradict one another. Temüjin means "blacksmith" in English. Chinos were a branch of the Mongols who descended from Ergenekon by melting the iron hillside, according to Rashid al-Din Hamadani.  Genghis Khan was once thought to be a blacksmith, according to legend. Temüjin, Genghis' given name, was derived from the Turco-Mongol word temüri(n), which meant "blacksmith." Paul Pelliot recognized that Genghis Khan's legend as a blacksmith was untrue, even though it was well-established by the middle of the 13th century. Genghis Khan was most likely born around 1162 in Delüün Boldog, near Ulaanbaatar, in modern-day northern Mongolia, near the summit of Burkhan Khaldun and the rivers Onon and Kherlen. Hoelun, Yesügei's father's second wife, was a strong Kiyad chief in the Khamag Mongol confederation and a Keraite tribal ally. Temüjin was called after the Tatar chief Temüjin-üge, whom his father had just captured, according to the Secret History. Temüjin's noble pedigree, on the other hand, made it easier for him to gain the help of other Mongol clans and eventually unite them.

Early Life and Family

Hasar, Hachiun, and Temüge were Temüjin's three brothers; Temülen was his sister, and Begter and Belgutei were his half-brothers. Temüjin's childhood was challenging, as it was for many Mongolian nomads. When he was nine years old, his father planned up a marriage for him and handed him over to the family of his future wife, Börte of the tribe Khongirad. Temüjin was to reside there until the age of marriageable age, serving the household's master Dai Setsen. While returning home, his father was approached by nearby Tatars, who had long been Mongol enemies, who offered him poisoned food. Temüjin came home after learning of this to take over his father's post as chief. The tribe, on the other hand, turned its backs on the family, leaving them exposed. As the family's oldest male, Temüjin's elder half-brother Begter started to wield authority, and he would ultimately be able to claim Hoelun (who was not his mother) as his wife. In a raid about 1177, Temüjin was captured by his father's former friends, the Tayichi'ud, and enslaved, allegedly with a cangue (a sort of portable stocks). He fled the ger (yurt) at night by hiding in a river fissure with the help of a sympathetic guard. Temüjin gained a reputation as a result of his daring escape. Jelme and Bo'orchu soon joined him in his cause. They, together with the guard's son Chilaun, became Genghis Khan's generals. At the period, none of Mongolia's tribal confederations was politically united, and arranged marriages were frequently utilized to cement temporary alliances. As a result, Temüjin grew up in a harsh political environment marked by tribal warfare, robbery, raids, corruption, and vengeance between confederations, exacerbated by foreign meddling, such as from China to the south. Temüjin's mother, Hoelun, taught him numerous lessons, including the importance of solid relationships in maintaining Mongolian peace.

Genghis Khan had a large number of wives and concubines, as was customary for powerful Mongol men. He routinely took spouses and concubines from the empires and societies he conquered; these women were frequently princesses or queen kidnapped or given to him. Several of Genghis Khan's high-status wives were given their ordos, or camps, to reside in and oversee. Junior wives, concubines, and even children were present in each camp. The Kheshig (Mongol imperial guard) was in charge of guarding Genghis Khan's ladies yurts. The guards had to pay special care to Genghis Khan's yurt and camp, which could change every night as he visited different wives. Genghis Khan customarily took one wife with him on his military conquests, leaving the rest of his wives (and concubines) to run the empire while he was away.

Börte

When Börte was ten years old, and Genghis Khan (then known as Temüjin) was nine, her father and Yesügei, Temüjin's father, arranged their marriage. After Tatar nomads poisoned Yesügei, Temüjin stayed with her and her family until he was summoned to care for his mother and younger siblings. Temüjin continued downstream down the Kelüren River for nearly seven years until coming across Börte in 1178. When Börte's father learned that Temüjin had returned to marry Börte, he had them "united as man and wife." With her father's permission, Temüjin brought Börte and her mother to live in his family's yurt. As a dowry, Börte received a beautiful black sable jacket. Unfortunately, soon after their marriage, the Three Merkits invaded their family camp early and seized Börte. As a booty of war, she was given to one of their warriors. Temüjin was devastated by his wife's kidnapping, saying that his "bed was made empty" and his "breast was torn apart." Nevertheless, Temüjin, with the help of his allies Wang Khan and Jamukha, rescued her some months later. Many academics consider this one of Temüjin's pivotal life events, which pushed him closer to becoming a conqueror. Börte was imprisoned for eight months and gave birth to Jochi shortly after her release. Because her kidnapper took her as a "wife" and may have conceivably pregnant her, it was unclear who the child's father was. Temüjin, despite this, allowed Jochi to stay in the family and claimed him as his own. Chagatai (1183–1242), Ögedei (1186–1241), and Tolui (1191–1232) were Börte's other sons. Temüjin had numerous additional children with other spouses, but they were not regarded as heirs; only Börte's sons were considered heirs. Börte's daughters included Kua Ujin Bekhi, Alakhai Bekhi, Alaltun, Checheikhen, Tümelün, and Tolai.However, because of Mongol records' poor preservation, it's questionable whether she gave birth to all of them.

Yesugen

Temüjin fell in love with Yesugen during his military expedition against the Tatars and married her. She was the daughter of a Tatar commander named Yeke Cheren, who had been killed in combat by Temüjin's army. One of the survivors, Yesugen, went to Temüjin, who slept with her when the military campaign against the Tatars ended. Yesugen urged Temüjin to treat her nicely and not discard her when they were having sex, according to the Mongol Secret History. When Temüjin appeared to agree, Yesugen suggested that he marry her sister, Yesui. Thus, Yesugen and Yesui, both Tatar sisters, became Temüjin's main wives and were given their camps to administer. Temüjin also abducted a third Tatar woman, an unknown concubine, from the Tatars.

Yesui

At the suggestion of her sister, Yesugen, Temüjin had his men track down and kidnap Yesui. When she was delivered to Temüjin, he found her to be just as lovely as she had been described, and he married her. The Tatars' other wives, mothers, sisters, and daughters were divided up and given to Mongol males. Yesugen and Yesui, two Tatar sisters, were two of Genghis Khan's most powerful wives. When Genghis Khan embarked on his final campaign against the Tangut empire, he took Yesui with him.

Khulan

In the winter of 1203–04, Khulan was born when her father, the Merkit leader Dayir Usan, surrendered to Temüjin and brought her to him. According to the Mongol Secret History, Khulan and her father were apprehended by Naya'a, one of Temüjin's officers attempting to protect them from surrounding Mongol warriors. However, Temüjin felt Naya'a was motivated to aid her and her father by his carnal affections for Khulan after they arrived three days later than scheduled. While Temüjin was questioning Naya'a, Khulan defended him by inviting Temüjin to have sex with her and personally inspect her virginity, which satisfied him. Temüjin eventually accepted Dayir Usan's capitulation, as well as Khulan as his new wife. Dayir Usan later reversed his surrender, but he and his followers were eventually defeated, his belongings pillaged, and he was murdered. Temüjin continued to wage military assaults against the Merkits until 1218 when they were finally dispersed. Khulan rose to prominence as one of Temüjin's wives, and she oversaw one of the enormous wifely camps, which housed other wives, concubines, children, and animals. She had a son named Gelejian, who fought with Börte's sons in his father's military battles.

Möge Khatun

Möge Khatun was Genghis Khan's concubine, and she later married his son Ögedei Khan. Möge Khatun was "presented to Chinggis Khan by a chief of the Bakrin clan, and he loved her very much," according to Persian historian Ata-Malik Juvayni. Ögedei also favoured her, and she accompanied him on his hunting trips. However, she does not appear to be the mother of any children.

Juerbiesu

Juerbiesu was a Qara Khitai, Mongol Empire, and Naiman empress. On the plains, she was a famous beauty. She was originally Inanch Bilge Khan's favourite concubine, and after his death, she married his son Tayang Khan. Juerbiesu held nearly all of the power in Naiman politics since Tayang Khan was a useless monarch. Princess Hunhu was her daughter with Liao's emperor, Yelü Zhilugu. When Genghis Khan defeated the Naiman tribe and murdered Tayang Khan, Juerbiesu made some derogatory comments about the Mongols. For example, he described their garments as filthy and disgusting. Despite this, she quickly retracted her statements and went to Genghis Khan's tent on her own. He questioned her about the comments but was immediately attracted to her attractiveness. Juerbiesu swore to serve him well after spending the night with him, and he made her one of his empresses. Only Khulan and Borte had a higher status than she did.

Ibaqa Beki

Ibaqa was the eldest daughter of Jakha Gambhu, the Kerait king who collaborated with Genghis Khan in 1204 to destroy the Naimans. As part of the agreement, Genghis Khan was granted Ibaqa as a bride. Her sisters were Begtütmish, who married Jochi, Genghis Khan's son, and Sorghaghtani Beki, who married Tolui, Genghis Khan's son. After a childless marriage of around two years, Genghis Khan abruptly divorced Ibaqa and delivered her to the Uru'ut clan general Jürchedei, who had executed Jakha Gambhu after the latter turned against Genghis Khan. It's unclear why this remarriage occurred: Jürchedei was given Ibaqa by Genghis Khan as a prize for his assistance in wounded Nilga Senggum in 1203 and later murdering Jakha Gambhu, according to The Secret History of the Mongols. In Jami' al-tawarikh, Rashid al-Din claims that Genghis Khan divorced Ibaqa after having a nightmare in which God told him to give her away right away, and Jürchedei happened to be guarding the tent at the time. Regardless of the reasoning, Genghis Khan allowed Ibaqa to preserve her Khatun title even after her remarriage and asked that she leave him a portion of her dowry as a souvenir. Ibaqa was likewise affluent, according to the accounts.

Random raids, revenge assaults, and plundering revealed that the Central Asian plateau north of China was divided into several large tribal confederations in the early 12th century, including hostile Naimans, Merkits, Tatars, Khamag Mongols, and Keraites.

Early Attempts at Power

Temüjin began his rise to power by offering himself as an ally (or, according to other sources, a vassal) to Toghrul, his father's anda (sworn brother or blood brother), who was Khan of the Keraites and was better known in China as "Wang Khan," a title bestowed upon him by the Jurchen Jin dynasty in 1197. When the Merkits kidnapped Börte, this bond was cemented for the first time. Temüjin sought help from Toghrul, who gave 20,000 of his Keraite troops and suggested Temüjin enlist the help of his childhood buddy Jamukha, who had become the Khan of his tribe, the Jadaran. Even though the campaign freed Börte and completely overpowered the Merkits, it also cleared the path for Temüjin and Jamukha to divide. Nevertheless, they were blood brothers (anda) before this, swearing to be eternally faithful.

Rift with Jamukha and Defeat at DalanBalzhut

As Jamukha and Temüjin's friendship deteriorated, each began to consolidate power, and the two became rivals. Temüjin pursued a meritocratic style and attracted a broader range, and lower class of adherents, whilst Jamukha backed the traditional Mongolian aristocracy. Temüjin rose to popularity after defeating the Merkits and the shaman Kokochu, and it was revealed that the Eternal Blue Sky had set aside the globe for Temüjin. Temüjin was elected ruler of the Mongols in 1186. Faced with this threat, Jamukha attacked Temujin in 1187 with a 30,000-strong force. Temüjin rallied his forces to repel the invasion, but he was soundly defeated in Dalan Balzhut. Jamukha, on the other hand, frightened and alienated potential disciples by cooking alive 70 young male captives in cauldrons. Temüjin's sponsor, Toghrul, was exiled to the Qara Khitai. Temüjin's life for the next ten years is unknown, as historical documents are mainly mute at that time.

Return to Power

With the support of the Keraites and Mongols, Jin launched an attack on their official vassal, the Tatars, about 1197. Temüjin led a portion of the attack, and Jin promoted him and Toghrul to prominence following the victory. Toghrul was given the honorary title of Ong Khan, and Jin gave Temüjin the lesser title of j'aut quri. Thus, the Naimans to the West, the Merkits to the north, the Tanguts to the south, and Jin to the east were the major adversaries of the Mongol confederation (traditionally the "Mongols") around 1200. Temüjin defied Mongol custom in a few key ways during his reign and defeat of enemy tribes. Instead of family ties, he delegated authority based on talent and devotion. Temüjin promised residents and troops income from future war spoils as an incentive for perfect obedience and the Yassa code of law. He did not drive away other tribes' armies or abandon their civilians when he overpowered them. Instead, he sheltered the vanquished tribe and assimilated its members into his clan. He'd have his mother accept orphans from the vanquished tribe and adopt them into his family. Temüjin grew stronger with each victory thanks to these political reforms, which generated immense loyalty among the subjugated people.

Rift with Toghrul

Senggum, Toghrul's (Wang Khan's) son, admired Genghis Khan's rising authority and closeness to his father. He was rumoured to be plotting the assassination of Genghis Khan. Even though Genghis Khan purportedly saved Toghrul on several occasions, he yielded to his son and became uncooperative with Genghis Khan. Senggum's ambitions were discovered by Genghis Khan, who eventually overcame him and his adherents. Toghrul's refusal to marry his daughter to Jochi, Genghis Khan's first son, was one of the later rifts between Genghis Khan and Toghrul. In Mongolian culture, this was considered disrespectful, and it resulted in a conflict. Toghrul allied with Jamukha, who were already fighting Genghis Khan's army. Toghrul's defeat was caused by a conflict between Toghrul and Jamukha and the desertion of many of their supporters to Genghis Khan. During the battle, Jamukha managed to flee. This setback precipitated the Keraite tribe's decline and eventual destruction. Temüjin turned to the Turkic Naimans under the leadership of Tayang Khan. Jamukha and his troops sought asylum after steadily conquering the Alchi Tatars, Keraites, and Uhaz Merkits and acquiring at least one bride at each stop. The Naimans refused to submit, even though enough sectors freely sided with Genghis Khan once more.

Jamukha was elected Gür Khan, or "universal ruler," at a khuruldai in 1201, a title used by the monarchs of the Qara Khitai. Jamukha's adoption of this title marked the end of Genghis Khan's reign, and he assembled a coalition of tribes to resist him. Several generals, notably Subutai, Jelme's well-known younger brother, deserted Jamukha before the fight. Jamukha was handed over to Genghis Khan by his warriors in 1206 after multiple fights. Genghis Khan offered Jamukha his friendship once more, according to the Secret History. The men who betrayed Jamukha were murdered by Genghis Khan, who stated that he did not want disloyal individuals in his army. Jamukha declined the offer, claiming that the sky can only have one sun and requesting an honourable death. It was customary to die without spitting blood, specifically by breaking one's back. Even though Jamukha was infamous for boiling his opponents' generals alive, he requested this method of death.

Sole Ruler of the Mongol Plains (1206)

Subutai, a Genghis Khan's guard at the time and eventually one of Genghis Khan's most accomplished commanders, beat the Merkit clan members who allied with the Naimans. Following the defeat of the Naimans, Genghis Khan became the sole ruler of the Mongol steppe, with all of the major confederations falling under his control or uniting under his Mongol confederation. There are reports of several betrayals and plots in accounts of Genghis Khan's life. Rifts with early supporters like Jamukha (who also desired to be a Mongol tribes ruler) and Wang Khan, his son Jochi, and issues with the most powerful shaman, who supposedly tried to put a wedge between him and his faithful brother Khasar. As seen by his massive spy network and Yam route systems, his military strategies demonstrated a keen interest in acquiring intelligence and understanding his adversaries' objectives. He appeared to be a keen study, picking up new technology and ideas quickly, such as Chinese siege warfare. He was also brutal, as evidenced by his measuring against the linchpin, which he utilized against Jamukha's tribes. By 1206, Genghis Khan had unified or conquered the Merkits, Naimans, Mongols, Keraites, Tatars, Uyghurs, and other diverse minor tribes. This was a huge accomplishment. It brought peace to formerly feuding tribes, as well as a unified political and military power. The Mongols were the name given to the union. Genghis Khan was recognized as Khan of the Consolidated Tribes and given the new title "Genghis Khan" during a Khuruldai, a meeting of Mongol chiefs. The title of Khagan was bestowed on him after his death by his son and successor, Ögedei, who claimed the title for himself (as he was also posthumously declared the founder of the Yuan dynasty).

Genghis Khan was a Tengrist, yet he was religiously tolerant and motivated in learning from other religions' philosophical and moral principles. Buddhist monks (including Zen monk Haiyun), Muslims, Christian missionaries, and Taoist monk Qiu Chuji were consulted. According to Nian Chang's Fozu Lidai Tongzai, Genghis Khan's viceroy Muqali pacified Shanxi in 1219, Zen Buddhist monk Haiyun (1203–1257) Zhongguan were recommended to Muqali by one of Muqali's Chinese generals. Muqali then informed Genghis Khan about the two, who issued the following decree in their honour: "They are true men who pray to God. I want to provide them with clothing and food and promote them to chiefs. I intend to collect a large number of people like this. They should not be burdened by obstacles when praying to Heaven. To avoid any maltreatment, they will be allowed to serve as darqan (possessor of immunity)." Genghis Khan visited Haiyun in 1214 and was pleased by his reluctance to grow his hair in the Mongol manner, allowing him to keep his head shaved instead. During Genghis Khan's reign, Haiyun became the head of the Chan (Chinese Zen) school, and he was repeatedly recognized by subsequent Khans as the chief monk in Chinese Buddhism until 1257 when he was succeeded as a chief monk by another Chan master, Xueting Fuyu, the Mongol-appointed abbot of Shaolin monastery. In Afghanistan in 1222, Genghis Khan summoned and met the Daoist master Qiu Chuji (1148–1227). He expressed his gratitude for Qiu Chuji accepting his invitation and inquired if he had brought the immortality medicine with him. According to Qiu Chuji, immortality medicine is no such thing, but life can be extended via abstention. Genghis Khan praised Qiu Chuji's forthright response and inquired whether he or others referred to him as an eternal heavenly man. Genghis Khan stated that Qiu Chuji shall be known as "Immortal" from now on and appointed him master of all monks in China, saying that Heaven had sent him Qiu Chuji. Qiu Chuji died the same year as Genghis Khan in Beijing, and his shrine was renamed, White Cloud Temple.

Following Khans continued to appoint Quanzhen School Daoist masters to White Cloud Temple. The Daoists lost their privilege in 1258, when Chinese Buddhists, Confucians, and Tibetan Buddhists cooperated against the Daoists in the Great Debate arranged by Genghis Khan's grandson Möngke Khan. This debate (at Shangdu/Xanadu, the third conference after two debates in the Karakorum in 1255 and 1256) was presided over by Kublai Khan, who 700 dignitaries accompanied. In 1242, Kublai Khan visited Haiyun and was persuaded to become a Buddhist. Genghis Khan's decree exempting Daoists (xiangsheng), Buddhists (Toyin), Christians (erke'üd), and Muslims (dashmad) from taxes was maintained by his successors until the end of the Yuan dynasty in 1368. All decrees follow the same pattern and assert that Genghis Khan was the first to issue an exemption edict. (I have given this proclamation to the Shaolin elder to carry out, according to Genghis Khan's decree that Buddhists, Christians, Daoists, and Muslims be exempt from all taxes and may they pray to God and continue to grant us blessings. During his invasion of Khwarezmia, Genghis Khan offered Muslims religious freedom, according to Juvaini, "allowing the recitation of the Takbir and the azan." However, Rashid-al-Din claims that Genghis Khan outlawed Halal butchering on occasion. After Muslims refused to eat at a feast, Kublai Khan reinstated the rule in 1280. He condemned killing and circumcision in the name of Islam. After a decade, Kublai Khan's order was revoked. In Afghanistan in 1221, Genghis Khan met Wahid-ud-Din and asked him if the prophet Muhammad foresaw a Mongol conqueror. "I used to consider you a knowledgeable and prudent man, but from this speech of yours, it has become clear to me that you do not possess the entire understanding and that your comprehension is very tiny," he said, dismissing Wahid-ud-Din from his service.

Western Xia Dynasty

The Mongol Empire founded by Genghis Khan and his allies shared its western borders with the Tanguts' Western Xia kingdom during Genghis Khan's political ascension in 1206. To the east and south, the Manchurian Jurchens created the Jin dynasty, who governed northern China and were for millennia the traditional overlords of Mongolian tribes. Genghis Khan first prepared his people, army, and kingdom to prepare for war with Western Xia, or Xi Xia, near Mongolian territory. However, he was correct in his assumption that the Jin dynasty's more powerful youthful emperor would not come to Xi Xia's help. As a result, the Tanguts were turned down by the Jin dynasty when they requested assistance. Despite initial problems in conquering the emperor of Xi Xia's well-defended cities, Genghis Khan was able to force him to accept vassal status.

Jin Dynasty

Genghis Khan wanted to conquer the Jin dynasty again in 1211, after conquering Western Xia. Wanyan Jiujin, the Jin army's field commander, made a tactical error by failing to assault the Mongols at the first opportunity. Instead, the Jin commander sent Ming'an, a defecting Mongol messenger who alerted the Mongols that the Jin army was waiting on the opposite side of the pass. The Mongols killed hundreds of thousands of Jin troops during their battle at Yehuling. Genghis Khan assaulted the Jin capital of Zhongdu in 1215. (modern-day Beijing). According to Ivar Lissner, when their supply of metal for ammunition ran out, the locals resorted to shooting gold and silver cannon shots at the Mongols with their muzzle-loading guns. The city was sacked and captured. Emperor Xuanzong, the Jin emperor, was forced to move his capital to Kaifeng and give up the northern part of his kingdom to the Mongols. Kaifeng was conquered by the Mongols between 1232 and 1233, during Genghis Khan's third son, Ögedei Khan. After the assault of Caizhou in 1234, the Jin dynasty fell apart.

Qara Khitai

Temüjin destroyed the Naiman confederation and integrated it into his Mongol Empire. At the same time, Kuchlug escaped to the West and seized the khanate of Qara Khitai, commonly known as the Western Liao, founded by Liao dynasty survivors. As a result, Genghis Khan decided to conquer the Qara Khitai and defeat Kuchlug, possibly to depose him. However, after ten years of continuous combat in China against the Western Xia and Jin dynasties, the Mongol army was tired. As a result, Genghis only deployed two tumen (20,000 warriors) against Kuchlug, who was commanded by his younger commander, Jebe, dubbed "The Arrow." With such a little force, the invading Mongols had no choice but to change tactics and incite internal rebellion among Kuchlug's allies, leaving the Qara Khitai more vulnerable to Mongol invasion. Kuchlug's army was beaten west of Kashgar as a result. Kuchlug fled once more but was quickly apprehended and executed by Jebe's troops. Following the battle of Qara Khitai in 1218, the Mongol Kingdom and its influence spread as far west as Lake Balkhash, a Muslim empire from the Caspian Sea to the Persian Gulf and the Arabian Sea.

Khwarazmian Empire

Shah Ala ad-Din Muhammad ruled the Khwarazmian dynasty in the early 13th century. Genghis Khan recognized Khwarazmia as a viable commercial trading partner on the Silk Road and dispatched a 500-man caravan to establish official trade links with the empire. Genghis Khan and his family and officers invested in caravan money, silver, silk, various textiles and fabrics, and pelts to trade with Muslim merchants in the Khwarazmian lands. The caravan was attacked by Inalchuq, the governor of the Khwarazmian city of Otrar, who claimed it included spies and was part of a conspiracy against Khwarazmia. When the governor refused to pay compensation for the caravans' theft and give over the perpetrators, the situation got even more complicated. Genghis Khan sent the second group of three ambassadors (two Mongols and a Muslim) to see the Shah personally instead of the governor Inalchuq. The Shah shaved all of the men, decapitated the Muslim, and returned his head with the two remaining ambassadors. Genghis Khan was enraged and organized one of his largest invasion campaigns, assembling roughly 100,000 warriors (10 tumens), his most talented generals, and some of his sons. He left a commander and many troops in China, named his family members as his successors, and most likely named Ögedei as his immediate successor before heading to Khwarazmia. The Mongol army, headed by Genghis Khan, his generals, and his sons, crossed the Tien Shan mountains and entered the Khwarazmian Empire's domain. Genghis Khan meticulously organized his army, divided into three parts, after gathering intelligence from various sources. Jochi, his son, commanded the first division towards Khwarazmia's northeast. The second division, led by Jebe, marched secretly to Khwarazmia's southeast corner to form a pincer attack on Samarkand with the first division. Finally, Genghis Khan's and Tolui's third division marched to the northwest and assaulted Khwarazmia from that direction. Internecine feuds and the Shah's decision to divide his army into tiny factions concentrated in several towns split the Shah's army. This fragmentation was crucial in Khwarazmia's defeats because it allowed the Mongols to focus on eliminating small Khwarazmian forces rather than facing a cohesive defence despite their exhaustion from the long voyage. Using better planning and tactics, the Mongol army soon conquered the village of Otrar. As revenge for his acts, Genghis Khan ordered the massacre of many villagers, enslaved the rest of the populace, and executed Inalchuq by pouring molten silver into his ears and eyes. Following that, Genghis Khan attacked Bukhara, a city with only a moat and a single wall and the citadel typical of Khwarazmian cities. The city leaders let the Mongols in, but Turkish defenders held off the Mongols for another twelve days. Survivors of the citadel were executed, artists and artisans were sent to Mongolia, young men who had not fought were recruited into the Mongolian army, and the remainder of the population was enslaved. Following Bukhara's capitulation, Genghis Khan made the unusual move of personally visiting the city, where he lectured the city's nobles and elites on their wrongdoings via translators, stating, "If you hadn't committed enormous crimes, God would not have put a punishment like me upon you." With Bukhara under their control, the Mongols could move on to Samarkand, which had significantly better fortifications and a larger garrison than Bukhara. The Mongols used psychological warfare, including captive Khwarazmian prisoners as body shields, to defeat the city. Only a few soldiers remained in the citadel after several days, ardent followers of the Shah. Following the fall of the castle, Genghis ordered the execution of every soldier who had taken up arms against him. The population of Samarkand were then commanded to flee and meet in a plain outside the city, where they were slaughtered. Pyramids of severed heads were raised as a sign of victory, according to Persian historian Ata-Malik Juvayni. Similarly, Juvayni claimed that "all the population, both men and women, were driven out onto the plain and separated in line with their regular tradition, then they were all slaughtered" in the city of Termez, south of Samarkand. Modern archaeology does not support Juvayni's claim of mass executions at these sites. Rather than executing the conquered, the Mongols enslaved them and either sent them to Mongolia to work as menial labour or kept them for use in the war effort. Even so, the result was massive depopulation. The construction of a "pyramid of severed heads" took place in Nishapur, where Genghis Khan's sons-in-law, Toquchar, was murdered by an arrow fired from the city walls after the citizens revolted. The Khan then gave his widowed daughter, who was pregnant at the time, the power to decide the city's fate, and she ordered the city's entire population to be slaughtered. She is also said to have ordered the death of every dog, cat, and other animals in the city "so that no living thing would survive her husband's murder." Tolui, the Khan's youngest son, dutifully carried out the sentence. According to widely circulated but unsubstantiated accounts, the severed heads were subsequently piled in separate piles for men, women, and children. The Shah chose to flee rather than surrender near the end of the battle for Samarkand. Genghis Khan then tasked two of his generals, Subutai and Jebe, with annihilating the Khwarazmian Empire's remnants, giving them 20,000 troops and two years to do so. The Shah died on a small island in the Caspian Sea, where he had escaped with his last loyal men, in unknown circumstances. Meanwhile, Khwarazmian soldiers controlled the prosperous commercial city of Urgench. The assault on Urgench was the most difficult battle of the Mongol invasion, and the city surrendered only after a valiant struggle by the defenders, who fought block by block. Due to the unusual difficulties of adapting Mongolian tactics to city battles, Mongolian casualties were higher than usual. The artisans were brought back to Mongolia, young women and children were sold as slaves to Mongol soldiers, and the rest of the population was killed, as was customary. According to the Persian scholar Juvayni, 50,000 Mongol soldiers were assigned to kill twenty-four Urgench civilians, totalling 1.2 million victims. Modern researchers find these figures questionable logistically, but the sacking of Urgench was undoubtedly a bloodbath.

Georgia, Crimea, Kievan Rus and Volga Bulgaria

Genghis Khan assembled his armies in Persia and Armenia after defeating the Khwarazmian Empire in 1220 and returned to the Mongolian steppes. The Mongol army was divided into two forces at Subutai's recommendation. Genghis Khan led the main army on an expedition to Mongolia that included Afghanistan and northern India. In contrast, generals Jebe and Subutai led another 20,000 (two tumen) forces into the Caucasus and Russia. They made significant inroads into Armenia and Azerbaijan. The Mongols conquered Georgia, sacked the Genoese trade bastion of Caffa in Crimea, and spent the winter near the Black Sea. Subutai's army assaulted the Cuman–Kipchak joint forces. The poorly coordinated 80,000 Kievan Rus' warriors led by Mstislav the Bold of Halych and Mstislav III of Kiev set out to stop the Mongols' actions in the area as they returned home.

Subutai dispatched ambassadors to the Slavic princes, requesting a separate peace treaty, but the emissaries were killed. Subutai's forces beat the greater Kievan force at the Battle of Kalka River in 1223. At the Battle of Samara Bend, they may have been beaten by the Volga Bulgars. Except for a brief report written by Arab historian Ibn al-Athir in Mosul, 1,800 kilometres (1,100 miles) away from the incident, there is no historical record. Various historical secondary sources – Morgan, Chambers, and Grousset – claim that the Mongols defeated the Bulgars. Chambers even claimed that the Bulgars made up stories to convince the (just crushed) Russians that they had destroyed the Mongols and driven them out of their lands. The Russian princes then filed a peace petition. Subutai consented, but he had no intention of forgiving the princes. Not only had the Rus put up a brave fight, but Jebe, with whom Subutai had been at odds for years, had been killed immediately before the Battle of Kalka River. The Russian princes were given a bloodless execution, as was customary for the nobility in Mongol culture. Subutai and his fellow generals ate their meals on a large wooden platform constructed just for them. Six Russian princes were crushed to death under this platform, including Mstislav III of Kiev. Captives of the vast green meadows beyond Bulgar land taught the Mongols, allowing them to plan the conquest of Hungary and Europe. Soon after, Genghis Khan summoned Subutai back to Mongolia. Subutai and Jebe's renowned cavalry campaign, in which they surrounded the entire Caspian Sea and defeated all armies in their way, is still unmatched to this day, and word of the Mongol victories began to spread to other nations, particularly in Europe. These two campaigns were viewed as reconnaissance missions aimed at getting a sense of the political and cultural features of the regions. Both divisions returned to Mongolia in 1225. These conquests added Transoxiana and Persia to an already powerful kingdom while annihilating any resistance. In 1237, the Mongols returned under Genghis Khan's grandson Batu and the Golden Horde to conquer Volga Bulgaria and Kievan Rus', ending the campaign in 1240.

Western Xia and Jin Dynasty

The Tanguts' vassal emperor (Western Xia) had previously refused to join the Mongol war against the Khwarezmid Empire. Instead, Western Xia and the defeated Jin dynasty established a partnership to fight the Mongols, hoping that the Khwarazmians' campaign would prevent the Mongols from responding effectively. Genghis Khan launched a punitive attack against the Tanguts in 1226, shortly after returning from the West. His army rapidly conquered Heisui, Ganzhou, and Suzhou, and Xiliang-fu was conquered in the fall. Near the Helan Mountains, one of the Tangut generals challenged the Mongols to a battle but was defeated. Genghis Khan besieged the Tangut city of Lingzhou in November and defeated the Tangut rescue force by crossing the Yellow River. It was here, according to mythology, that Genghis Khan observed a line of five stars aligned in the sky and took it as a sign of his victory. In 1227, Genghis Khan's army invaded and destroyed the Tangut capital of Ning Hia, then marched on into the spring, capturing Lintiao-fu, Xining province, Xindu-fu, and Deshun province in quick succession. Tangut commander Ma Jianlong fought bravely for many days at Deshun, leading assaults against the invaders outside the city gate. Unfortunately, Ma Jianlong later died as a result of arrow wounds he got in battle. After capturing Deshun, Genghis Khan relocated to Liupanshan (Qingshui County, Gansu Province) to avoid the harsh summer. The new Tangut emperor promptly submitted to the Mongols, and the Tanguts soon followed suit. Genghis Khan, enraged by their betrayal and resistance, ordered the execution of the whole imperial family, effectively putting an end to the Tangut royal bloodline.

During the latter years of Genghis Khan's rule, as he grew older, the succession of Genghis Khan became a hot topic. Because of Jochi's seniority among the siblings, the long-running paternity debate over Genghis's oldest son Jochi was extremely acrimonious. According to historical reports, Chagatai was the one who raised the subject of Jochi's paternity the most. Just before Genghis Khan invaded the Khwarezmid Empire, Chagatai declared to his father and brothers in The Secret History of the Mongols that he would never accept Jochi as Genghis Khan's successor. Ögedei was appointed as successor in response to this friction, as well as likely for other reasons.

Ögedei

Ögedei Khan (c. 1186 – December 11, 1241) was Genghis Khan's third son and the Mongol Empire's second Great Khan (Khagan). During the invasions of Europe and Asia, he continued his father's expansion and became a global figure when the Mongol Empire reached its widest extent West and south.

Jochi

Genghis Khan was aware of tensions between his sons (especially between Chagatai and Jochi) and was concerned that if he died, they would fight. As a result, he resolved to divide his empire among his sons and proclaim each of them a Khan in his own right, with one of his sons naming himself as his successor. Because of his statements that he would not obey Jochi if he were to succeed his father, Chagatai was regarded as unstable due to his rage and hasty actions. Tolui, Genghis Khan's youngest son, was unsuitable because younger boys were not given much responsibility in Mongol tradition due to their age. If Jochi were to succeed, Chagatai would wage war against him, causing the empire to fall apart. As a result, Genghis Khan chose to hand over the reign to Ögedei. Genghis Khan regarded Ögedei as a trustworthy individual who was relatively stable and down to earth, and he saw him as a neutral candidate. The latter could help alleviate the conflict between his brothers. During his father's lifetime, Jochi died in 1226. Some researchers, like Ratchnevsky, have speculated on the possibility that Jochi was poisoned on Genghis Khan's orders. According to Rashid al-Din, the great Khan called for his sons in the spring of 1223, and while his siblings obeyed the order, Jochi stayed in Khorasan. The issue, according to Juzjani, began from a conflict between Jochi and his brothers during the siege of Urgench. Because Urgench was part of the region assigned to him as a fief, Jochi attempted to safeguard it from destruction. He ends his account with Jochi's fictitious statement: "Genghis Khan is insane for slaughtering so many people and destroying so much country. If I killed my father while he was hunting, formed an alliance with Sultan Muhammad, resurrected this area, and assisted and supported the Muslims, I would be performing a service." According to Juzjani, Genghis Khan ordered his son to be secretly poisoned after learning of these preparations; however, as Sultan Muhammad was already dead by 1223, the authenticity of this narrative seems doubtful.

In August 1227, Genghis Khan died at the fall of Yinchuan, the capital of Western Xia. The actual reason for his death is unknown; however, it has been suggested that it was due to being slain in action against the Western Xia, illness, falling off his horse, or wounds incurred while hunting or fighting. Genghis Khan was murdered after he fell off his horse while hunting. From his travels, he was already elderly and tired. According to the Galician–Volhynian Chronicle, he was killed in battle by the Western Xia.

In contrast, Marco Polo claimed he died from an infection caused by an arrow wound he sustained during his final war. Later Mongol histories link Genghis Khan's death to the capture of a Western Xia princess as war loot. One early-seventeenth-century chronicle even claims that the princess hid a little knife and stabbed him. However, other Mongol authors have questioned this version, believing it to be a fabrication by the rival Oirads. Years before his death, Genghis Khan requested that he be buried without markings following his tribe's customs. Following his death, his remains were transferred to Mongolia, possibly to Khentii Aimag, where many believe he is buried near the Onon River and the Burkhan Khaldun mountain (part of the Kentii mountain range). According to folklore, the burial escort killed anyone and everything in their route to hide his final resting place.

The Genghis Khan Mausoleum is his memorial, not his burial location, as it was built several years after his death. To preserve the mausoleum from Japanese invaders, Chinese Nationalist soldiers took it from its location at Mongolia's 'Lord's Enclosure' (Mongolian: Edsen Khoroo) in 1939. It was transported on carts across Communist-controlled territory in Yan'an for 900 kilometres (560 miles) to safety at the Dongshan Dafo Dian Buddhist monastery, where it resided for ten years. As Communist troops advanced in 1949, Nationalist soldiers transported it another 200 kilometres (120 miles) west to the famed Tibetan monastery of Kumbum Monastery or Ta'er Shi in Xining, shortly taken over by the Communists. Genghis Khan's body and artefacts were restored to Mongolia's Lord's Enclosure in early 1954. By 1956, a new temple had been built to accommodate them. Unfortunately, almost everything of worth was destroyed by the Red Guards during the Cultural Revolution in 1968.

In the 1970s, the "relics" were recreated, and in 1989, a massive marble statue of Genghis Khan was completed. On October 6, 2004, a combined Japanese-Mongolian archaeological dig in rural Mongolia unearthed what is thought to be Genghis Khan's palace, raising the prospect of finding the ruler's long-lost burial site. Legend says a river was diverted over his grave to make it impossible to find (similar to how Sumerian King Gilgamesh of Uruk and Alaric I were buried). Other legends claim that a herd of horses stampeded over his tomb, that trees were planted over the place, and that the permafrost helped conceal the grave. Genghis Khan left behind a force of almost 129,000 warriors, of which 28,000 were distributed among his siblings and sons. His youngest son, Tolui, inherited about 100,000 men. The majority of Mongolia's elite cavalry was in this army. The youngest son, according to custom, receives his father's possessions. Each of Jochi, Chagatai, Ögedei Khan, and Kulan's son Gelejian received 4,000-man armies. His mother and his three brothers' descendants each received 3,000 men.

Politics and Economics

The Yassa, a civic and military code developed by Genghis Khan, controlled the Mongol Empire. The Mongol Empire did not place a premium on nationality or race in the administrative realm, instead opting for a meritocratic system. As befitted its size, the Mongol Empire had one of the most ethnically and culturally various empires in history. Many of the empire's nomadic population, including Mongols, Turks, and others, considered themselves Mongols in military and civilian life. The Mongol Empire contained many different Khans of various nationalities, such as Muhammad Khan. Religious leaders, as well as teachers and doctors, were free from paying taxes. Because Mongol tradition had long considered that religion was a personal concept not susceptible to law or intrusion, the Mongol Empire advocated religious tolerance. Ong Khan, Genghis Khan's tutor and the eventual competitor converted to Nestorian Christianity sometime before his rise to power. Shamanists, Buddhists, and Christians were all present among the Mongol tribes. On the Asian steppe, religious tolerance was thus a well-established concept. According to modern Mongolian historians, Genghis Khan attempted to build a civil state under the Great Yassa near the end of his reign, guaranteed legal equality for all people, including women. There is, however, little indication of this, nor the relaxation of discriminatory restrictions against sedentary peoples like the Chinese. In the Mongol Empire and the household, women played a rather prominent role; for example, Töregene Khatun was briefly in command of the Mongol Empire while the next male leader, Khagan, was being picked. The supposed policy of facilitating trade and communication is referred to as the Pax Mongolica by modern researchers (Mongol Peace).

Genghis Khan understood that to govern over the towns and kingdoms he had conquered, and he needed people. He also realized that such administrators would be difficult to come by among his Mongol people, who were nomads with no prior experience with the city administration. Genghis Khan welcomed Chu'Tsai, a Khitan prince who had served for the Jin dynasty and was captured by the Mongol army when the Jin kingdom was destroyed. Jin had risen to prominence after overthrowing Khitan. Chu'Tsai, a lineal descendant of Khitan emperors, was told by Genghis that he had avenged Chu'Tsai's forebears. Chu'Tsai stated that his father and he both served the Jin dynasty honestly and that he did not regard his father as an enemy; therefore, the subject of vengeance was irrelevant. Genghis Khan was impressed by this response. Chu'Tsai governed areas of the Mongol Empire and became a trusted advisor to the Mongol Khans.

Military

Genghis Khan had complete faith in his generals, such as Muqali, Jebe, and Subutai, and viewed them as close advisors, giving them many of the same privileges and confidence close family members received. When they went on campaigns distant from the Mongol Empire seat of Karakorum, Khan let them make their own decisions. For example, Subutai and Jebe were permitted to pursue the Great Raid into the Caucasus and Kievan Rus', which they had proposed to the Khagan on their initiative, while Genghis Khan was fighting in Central Asia. While Genghis Khan allowed his generals a lot of freedom in leadership, he also demanded absolute loyalty. The Mongol military was also effective at cutting off towns, siege warfare, and town resources by diverting rivers, taking enemy captives and pushing them in front of the army, and adopting new ideas, tactics, and tools from the people they conquered. This was especially true in Muslim and Chinese siege engines and engineers to assist the Mongol cavalry in capturing cities. The prevalent practise of feigning withdrawal to break enemy formations and lead minor enemy groups away from the main group and guarded position for ambush and counterattack was another traditional Mongol military technique. The communications and supply route, or Yam, was another significant part of Genghis Khan's military organization, borrowed from prior Chinese models. Genghis Khan paid special attention to increasing the speed with which military intelligence and official communications were gathered. Yam waystations were built all over the empire to achieve this goal.

Khanates

Genghis Khan split his kingdom into numerous Khanates intended as sub-territories some years before his death. Their Khans were supposed to follow the Great Khan, who was originally Ögedei. (Because Jochi died many months before Genghis Khan, his domains were divided between his sons Batu and Orda.) The Khanates as assigned by Genghis Khan are as follows:

• The Great Khan's Empire: Ögedei Khan, as Great Khan, conquered most Eastern Asia, including China, subsequently becoming the Yuan dynasty under Kublai Khan.
• Mongol homeland (modern-day Mongolia, including the Karakorum): Tolui Khan, as the youngest son, was granted a small territory near the Mongol homeland, as was customary at the time.
• Chagatai Khanate: Central Asia and northern Iran were granted to Chagatai Khan, Genghis Khan's second son.

Under Toqtamysh, the Blue Horde was given to Batu Khan, and the White Horde was given to Orda Khan. They were ultimately merged as the Kipchak Khanate or Khanate of the Golden Horde. Jochi, Genghis Khan's eldest son, had inherited the majority of remote Russia and Ruthenia. Jochi's realm was further divided between his sons because he died before Genghis Khan. Batu Khan invaded Russia, Hungary, and Poland, crushing multiple armies before being called back by word of Ögedei's death.

After Genghis Khan

Genghis Khan did not, according to common perception, conquer the entire territory of the Mongol Empire. His realm spanned from the Caspian Sea to the Sea of Japan when he died in 1227. It continued to expand for one or more generations. The speed of growth peaked under Genghis Khan's successor, Ögedei Khan. Mongol troops advanced into Persia, defeated the Western Xia and the Khwarezmid remnants, clashed with China's imperial Song dynasty, and eventually gained control of the entire country in 1279. They also extended their reach into Russia and Eastern Europe.

Genghis Khan, like other historical conquerors, is portrayed differently by vanquished peoples than by conquerors. Negative viewpoints can be found in the histories of many cultures from various geographical places. They frequently refer to the systematic massacre of inhabitants in conquered areas and Mongol forces' cruelty and destruction. On the other hand, other authors praise Genghis Khan's conquests for their beneficial aspects.

Positive

Genghis Khan is credited with uniting the Silk Road under a single political framework. This expanded connection and trade between the West, the Middle East, and Asia, broadening the cultural horizons of all three. According to some historians, Genghis Khan established significant levels of meritocracy in his administration, was religiously tolerant, and thoroughly articulated his rules to all of his men. Mongols and other ethnic groups, such as Turks, had worshipped Genghis Khan for generations, owing to his link with Mongol statehood, political and military structure, and war triumphs. He grew into a larger-than-life character, particularly among the Mongols, and is now regarded as the embodiment of Mongolian culture. During Mongolia's communist era, Genghis Khan was frequently referred to as a reactionary, and positive references were avoided. The installation of a monument at his birthplace and a conference commemorating his 800th birthday in 1962 drew Soviet Union criticism. It resulted in the expulsion of Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party Central Committee secretary Tömör-Ochir. The memory of Genghis Khan experienced a tremendous comeback in the early 1990s, partly due to its persecution during the Mongolian People's Republic period. Genghis Khan became a pivotal role in the formation of the nation's identity. Mongolians see him favourably because of his involvement in bringing warring clans together. Mongolians, for example, frequently refer to their country as "Genghis Khan's Mongolia," themselves as "Genghis Khan's progeny," and Genghis Khan as the "Father of the Mongols," particularly among the younger generation. There is, however, a chasm in the public's impression of his cruelty. Mongolians believe that non-Mongol historical records are unfairly skewed against Genghis Khan, that his butchery is overstated, and that his good contribution is undervalued. Genghis Khan's name and likeness can still be found on products, streets, buildings, and other places in Mongolia today. His likeness can be found on anything from liquor bottles to candies, as well as the greatest Mongolian tögrög denominations of 500, 1,000, 5,000, 10,000, and 20,000. Chinggis Khaan International Airport is Mongolia's principal international airport in Ulaanbaatar. Major Genghis Khan sculptures may be found near Ulaanbaatar and in front of the parliament. To avoid trivialization, there have been numerous arguments on limiting the use of his name and image. Genghis Khan is widely recognized as one of Mongolia's most famous leaders. Because there was no united identity between the tribes that shared cultural similarities, he formed the Mongols as a political and ethnic identity. When tribal fighting was nearly unavoidable, he upheld many Mongol traditions and brought stability and unity. He is also credited with developing the old Mongolian alphabet and drafting the Ikh Zasag, Mongolia's first written code of law ("Great Administration"). Mongolian President Tsakhiagiin Elbegdorj has stated that the Ikh Zasag severely punished corruption and bribery. He sees Genghis Khan as a role model for anti-corruption efforts who sought equal legal protection for all citizens regardless of status or money. The President made the following statement on the 850th anniversary of Genghis Khan's birth: "Chinggis... was a man who understood that justice begins and ends with the equality of the law, not with the differences between people. He was a man who believed that decent laws and norms outlasted magnificent castles." In summation, Mongolians regard him as a pivotal actor in establishing the Mongol Empire, and hence the foundation of Mongolia as a country. In 2012, Elbegdorj signed a proclamation making Genghis Khan's birthday a national holiday on the Mongolian lunar calendar's first day of winter. In the Middle Ages, western European authors, who had little concrete information about Genghis Khan's kingdom in Asia, had a favourable opinion. According to the Italian adventurer Marco Polo, they "was a man of high merit, great ability, and heroism." Kench Suyematsu, a Japanese historian, claims that the ethnic Japanese Minamoto no Yoshitsune was Genghis Khan.

Mixed

In the People's Republic of China, there are differing perspectives on Genghis Khan. The legacy of Genghis Khan and his descendants, who conquered China after 65 years of fighting, is a divisive topic. China's population has dropped dramatically. North China's population fell from 50 million in the 1195 census to 8.5 million in the 1235–36 Mongol census. However, most of them died of plague, floods, and famine long after the Mongol invasion of northern China ended in 1234, and Mongols did not slaughter them. Yuan China has had issues since the 1340s. The Yellow River was continually inundated, and there were also other natural disasters. At the same time, the Yuan dynasty's huge dominion necessitated significant military expenditures. The Black Death was also a factor in the emergence of the Red Turban movement. Other parties or religious sects attempted to undermine the last Yuan kings' power; these religious movements frequently predicted imminent disaster. China was devastated by a decline in agriculture, pestilence, and cold weather, which sparked an armed uprising. When Toghon Temür was crowned in 1333, 9 out of 10 people in Hebei were slain by the Black Death. By 1351, the epidemic had killed two out of every three persons in China. During this time, an unknown number of people travelled to Southern China. According to James Waterson, many people may have relocated to southern China under the Southern Song or perished sickness and famine when agricultural and urban city infrastructure was destroyed. He cautioned against attributing the population reduction in northern China to the Mongol genocide. When cities surrendered to the Mongols, such as Kaifeng, which was surrendered to Subetai by Xu Li, Yangzhou, which was surrendered to Bayan by Li Tingzhi's second in command after Li Tingzhi was executed by the Southern Song, and Hangzhou, which was spared from sacking when it surrendered to Kublai Khan, cities were spared from massacre and sacking. Against the Jurchen Jin dynasty, Han Chinese and Khitan warriors defected en masse to Genghis Khan. Kublai Khan spared the sacking and murder of towns that submitted. As Jin moved their major capital from Beijing south to Kaifeng and defected to the Mongols, the Khitan did not appreciate losing their homeland in Manchuria. Inner Mongolia features a monument and buildings dedicated to him and a large ethnic Mongol population of about 5 million people, almost twice Mongolia's population. While Genghis Khan did not conquer all of China, his grandson Kublai Khan established the Yuan dynasty, credited with reuniting China. Many works of art and literature have praised Genghis Khan as a military leader and political genius. The Yuan dynasty, established by the Mongols, left an indelible mark on Chinese political and social systems for future centuries, with the preceding Jin dynasty's literature being relatively sparse. In Russia, Genghis Khan has a largely unfavourable reputation, while he is viewed fondly in Buryatia, the Russian Federation's Mongol-speaking Buryat republic. Timur Dugarzhapov, the head editor of Novaya Buryatia, claims that "Among the Buryats, Genghis Khan has long been regarded as a folk hero. But even today, youngsters in Buryatia are taught about how dreadful the "Mongol yoke" was, how it pushed Russia behind and was responsible for a slew of historical calamities."

Negative

Genghis Khan's conquests and leadership resulted in massive devastation and mass slaughter, and he, along with the Mongols in general, committed ethnocide and genocide. Targets of campaigns that refused to surrender were frequently subjected to captivity and widespread killing due to their refusal. The second campaign against Western Xia, Genghis Khan's final military effort before his death, involved the deliberate and systematic devastation of Western Xia cities and culture. Because of this policy of utter obliteration, according to John Man, Western Xia is only known to professionals in the topic because there is so little documentation of the society remains. According to him, "There's a case to be made that this was the first instance of attempted genocide ever documented. It was unquestionably a highly successful ethnocide." During Genghis Khan's conquest of Khwarezmia, the Mongols demolished Bukhara, Samarkand, Hert, s, and Neyshbr, killing the local populace. His invasions are seen as the start of 200 years known as the "Mongol tragedy" in Iran and other Islamic societies. Iranian historians from the Mongol occupation, such as Ibn al-Athir, Ata-Malik Juvaini, Seraj al-Din Jozjani, and Rashid al-Din Fazl-Allah Hamedani, regard the Mongol invasions as an unprecedented disaster. Like Zabih Allah Safa, several contemporary Iranian historians have characterized Genghis Khan's reign as a, particularly disastrous period. According to Steven R. Ward, Mongol violence and depredations in the Iranian Plateau "Up to three-quarters of the population was slain... perhaps 10 to 15 million individuals. According to some historians, Iran's population did not return to pre-Mongol levels until the mid-twentieth century." Although the Mughal emperors, particularly Timur, were proud Genghis Khan descendants, they distanced themselves from the Mongol atrocities committed against the Turks, Persians, Khwarizim Shahs, citizens of Baghdad and Bukhara, Damascus, Nishapur and historical figures such as Attar of Nishapur and many other notable Muslims. The legacies of Genghis Khan and Timur, on the other hand, were explicitly patronized by Mughal Emperors, and their names became associated with the names of other notable figures, particularly among Muslim communities in South Asia.

The Mughal emperor Babur's mother was a descendent, as was much of the Mongol nobility until the twentieth century. Much central Asian nobility claimed lineage from Genghis Khan, including Timur (also known as Tamerlane), a 14th-century military leader. The majority of Mongolia's Mongol nobility was eliminated during the Soviet crackdown.

Genghis Khan, unlike most rulers, never allowed his image to be depicted in paintings or sculptures. The oldest known photographs of Genghis Khan, including the famed National Palace Museum portrait, were created half a century after his death. Though the image in the National Palace Museum is frequently regarded as the most accurate representation of Genghis Khan's appearance, it, like all others, is essentially an arbitrary portrayal. Kublai Khan commissioned these early pictures, which sinicized Genghis Khan as a Mandarin to legitimize him as a Chinese monarch after his death. Other depictions of Genghis Khan from different civilizations portrayed him differently, based on their perceptions of him. For example, he was depicted as a Turkish sultan in Persia and an ugly barbarian with a violent face and fierce eyes in Europe. According to Herbert Allen Giles, Kublai Khan commissioned a Mongol painter known as Ho-li-hosun (also known as Khorisun or Qooriqosun) to paint Genghis Khan's picture in 1278. (National Palace Museum portrait). Under Kublai Khan's command, Khorisun and the other Genghis Khan's entrusted remaining servants were to ensure that the portrait of Genghis Khan portrayed his genuine image. The only individuals who saw Genghis Khan's physical appearance during his lifetime were Persian historian Minhaj al-Siraj Juzjani and Chinese emissary Zhao Hong. "A guy of great stature, powerful build, robust in the frame, the hair of his face scarce and turned white, with cats' eyes, possessed with dedicated energy, intelligence, brilliance, and understanding, awe-striking...", according to Minhaj al-Siraj. Based on eyewitness testimony from 1220, when Genghis Khan fought in Khorasan, the chronicler had previously commented on Genghis Khan's height, muscular frame, cat's eyes, and lack of grey hair (modern-day northwest Persia). Zhao Hong, a Song dynasty ambassador who visited the Mongols in 1221, characterized Genghis Khan as "of towering and magnificent stature, his brow is broad, and his beard is lengthy," according to Paul Ratchnevsky. Other descriptions of Genghis Khan can be found in manuscripts from the 14th century. Most of Genghis Khan's Borjigin ancestors were "tall, long-bearded, red-haired, and bluish green-eyed," according to the Persian historian Rashid-al-Din in Jami' al-tawarikh, published at the beginning of the 14th century. The veracity of this remark is a point of contention.

Genghis Khan is a huge, good-looking guy with red hair in the Georgian Chronicles, written in the 14th century. According to John Andrew Boyle, Rashid al-description Din's of red hair refers to rosy skin tone, and Genghis Khan, like most of his progeny, had a ruddy complexion, except for Kublai Khan, who was swarthy. He translated the text as follows: "It just so happened that he was born two months before Möge, and when Chingiz-Khan saw him, he said, "All our children have a reddish complexion, but this youngster is swarthy like his maternal uncles." Tell Sorqoqtani Beki that he should be given to a decent nurse to be raised." Shihab al-Umari, a 14th-century Arabic historian, contested Rashid al-translation Din's and stated Alan Gua lied about her clan's origins. According to historians like Denise Aigle, Rashid al-Din mythicized Genghis Khan's forefathers (the Borjigin clan) via his readings of The Secret History of the Mongols. According to Italian historian Igor de Rachewiltz, Genghis Khan's forefathers descended from the blue-eyed wolf and the fallow doe (Qo'ai Maral) mentioned in early legends, and their predecessors were animals.