Administration of Mughal Empire

The Mughal empire was divided into "Subas", which were subdivided further into "Sarkar," "Pargana" and "Gram". Under Akbar's rule, 15 Subas (provinces) expanded to 20 during Aurangzeb's tenure. Akbar introduced the Mansabdari system that served in both civil and military capacities. The name "Mansab" refers to the holder's rank. Kankut, Rai, and Zabti were the three methods of tax collection used by the Mughals. The Mughal administration was organized into different distinct types.

Due to the ultimate power, the Emperors of the Mughal Empire was always the central administrative authority. Several employees from various departments were chosen to ensure that transactions concerning diverse matters ran smoothly. The state's four main departments were diwan, Mir Bakhshi, Mir Saman, and Sadr, while the central government's four main officers were diwan, Mir Bakhshi, Mir Saman, and Sadr. The diwan (also known as the Wazir or chief minister) was in charge of income and finance and kept track of all expenditure and related departments, registering all imperial orders and allocating tasks and expenses to district faujdars. Among other officers, Mir Bakshi was in charge of military pay, accounts and other responsibilities. He was the Paymaster for all officers, but he also assisted in recruiting soldiers, listing mansabdars, and appointing significant authorities. Khan-i-Saman was in charge of the imperial household. He kept state Karkhana records and requirements and stores, order, interactions, and internal relations. The Sadr was in charge of religious offerings and donations. He was also in charge of imperial alms and education. Before Shah Jahan, Sadr served as Chief Qazi. After Shah Jahan, Aurangzeb split the two offices and assigned them to two different people. The vakil, a dignitary higher to the Wazir and other ministers, was occasionally appointed. He served as the Sultanate's deputy (naib).

By setting the areas of the provincial divisions and adopting a consistent administrative model subject to slight amendments to fit local circumstances, Akbar established a stable foundation for provincial administration. Each province had a group of officials representing the various parts of government, making provincial control more effective. The administrative structure of the provinces was identical to that of the federal government. Sipah Salaror Nazim (the governor), also known as subahdar, was appointed directly by the Emperor and was the main officer in charge of each Suba's civil and administrative affairs.

The Bakshi, or Paymaster, was the next provincial authority, responsible for the military establishment, Mansabdar payments, and other duties such as news writing for provinces. Every Suba (province) had its own Dag Choki, which was in charge of intelligence and postal services. The King received direct reports from the Waqai Navis and Waqai Nigars, while the Sawanih Nigars received confidential information. Provincial Sadr, Qazi, and other officials performed the same functions as central administration officials inside provinces. The faujdars (district administrative heads) and the kotwals (performing executive and ministerial duties) Subah was the Mughal Empire's word for a province. The word comes from the Arabic language. A subahdar (sometimes spelt "Subah") was the governor of a Subah, and the term was later shortened to subedar to refer to an officer in the Indian Army. Padhah (Emperor) Akbar founded the subahs during his administrative reforms from 1572 to 1580; initially, there were 12 subahs, but his conquests increased to 15 by the end of his reign. Sarkars, or districts, were created from Subahs. Parganas, or Mahals, were created from Sarkars. Through conquests, his successors, most notably Aurangzeb, increased the number of subahs. Many subahs were virtually independent as the empire disintegrated in the early 18th century or were overrun by the Marathas or the British. The first twelve subahs were established as a result of Akbar's administrative reforms:

Agra Subah

Established: 1580

Capital: Agra

Notes: The Mughal Empire's Agra Subah was founded during Akbar's reign and was one of its core territories until the quickly developing Maratha Empire superseded it. It shared borders with Delhi and Awadh to the north, Ilahabad to the east, and Malwa and Ajmer to the south and west. Its capital was Agra, a major administrative hub for the empire as it grew under Mughal control.

Ajmer Subah

Established: 1580

Capital: Ajmer

Notes: Following Akbar's administrative reform, the Ajmer Subah was one of the original 12 subahs that made up the Mughal Empire. Its limits approximately matched those of modern-day Rajasthan, and Ajmer served as its capital. Its subahs were Agra, Delhi, Gujarat, Thatta, Multan, and Malwa.

Awadh Subah

Capital: Faizabad, Lucknow

Notes: During the Rajput Kings' administrative reforms from 1572 to 1580, Awadh Subah was founded as one of the first 12 subahs. Sarkars, or districts, were divided into subahs. Parganas or Mahals were created from Sarkars.

Bengal Subah

Capital: Khwaspur Tanda (1576-1590), Rajmahal (1595-96 and 1639-1660), Jahangirnagar (Dhaka) (1608–39 and 1660–1704), Murshidabad (1704-1763), Munger (1763-1764)

Notes: Bengal was absorbed by the Mughals During the reign of the first Mughal Emperor, Babur. During the Battle of Ghaghra in 1529, Babur defeated Sultan Nasiruddin Nasrat Shah of the Bengal Sultanate. Babur later annexed Parts of Bengal. Humayun, his son and heir, took up residence at Gaur, Bengal's capital, for six months.

Bihar Subah

Capital: Patna

Notes: Mughal Emperor Akbar the Great captured Bengal Sultanate and annexed it to his empire dominion in 1576, following the Battle of Tukaroi. He divided Bihar and Bengal into one of his twelve subahs (imperial top-level provinces; Bihar with the seat at Patna). The provinces governed the region for much of this time. In 1703, Prince Azim-us-Shan, Aurangzeb's grandson, was named Governor of Bihar. In 1704, Azim-us-Shan renamed Pataliputra or Patna to Azimabad. Until the Battle of Plassey in 1757, Bihar remained under Mughal authority.

Delhi Subah

Capital: Delhi

Notes: The third and greatest Mughal Emperor, Akbar, continued to reign from Agra, causing Delhi's fortunes to deteriorate. The Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan (1628–1658) created the city that bears his name, Shahjahanabad, the seventh city of Delhi, also known as the old city or old Delhi, in the mid-17th century. From 1638 onwards, when Shah Jahan returned the capital from Agra, the old city served as the capital of the later Mughal Empire. Aurangzeb (1658–1707), Emperor of Delhi, was crowned in the Shalimar garden ('Aizzabad-Bagh) 1658 and 1659. The Mughal Empire's power waned swiftly after 1680, as the Hindu Maratha Empire rose to prominence.

Gujarat Subah

Established: 1573

Capital: Ahmedabad

Notes: By overthrowing the Gujarat Sultanate under Muzaffar Shah III in 1573, Akbar (1573–1605), the Emperor of the Mughal Empire, seized Gujarat (today a state in western India). In 1584, Muzaffar attempted but failed to reclaim the Sultanate. Gujarat remained a Mughal province (Subah), ruled by viceroys and officers appointed by Mughal emperors in Delhi. Mirza Aziz Kokaltash, Akbar's foster brother, was appointed viceroy, strengthening the Mughal authority on the province.

Kabul Subah

Capital: Kabul

Notes: Afghanistan was divided into three distinct areas from the 16th to the 17th centuries CE. The Khanate of Bukhara ruled in the north, the Iranian Shia Safavids ruled in the west. Finally, the Sunni Mughals of northern India ruled in the east, with Akbar establishing one of the original twelve subahs (imperial top-level provinces) in Kabul, bordering Lahore, Multan, and Kashmir (added to Kabul in 1596, later split-off) and the short-lived Balkh Subah (only 1646–47).

Illahabad Subah

Capital: Illahabad

Notes: Akbar reorganized his kingdom into 12 sections in 1580. First, he formed the "Subah of Ilahabas" by combining the provinces of Jaunpur, Kara-Manikpur, and the region of Bandhogarh.

Lahore Subah

Capital: Lahore

Notes: The Kashmir Subah was to the north, the Kabul Subah to the west, the Delhi Subah and Multan Subah to the south, and semi-autonomous hill states to the northeast of Lahore's Subah.

Malwa Subah

Capital: Ujjain

Notes: Ujjain, Chanderi, Raisen, Garha Mandla, Sarangpur, Bijagarh, Mandu, Handia, Nandurbar, Mandsaur, Gagron, and Kotri-Parava were among the 12 sarkars (districts) that made up Malwa Subah. These sarkars are subdivided further into 301 Parganas. The city of Ujjain served as the Subah's capital.

Multan Subah

Established: 1580

Capital: Multan

Notes: The Subah of Multan was a Mughal Empire subdivision that included the southern Punjab region.

Thatta Subah

Capital: Thatta

Notes: The Subah of Thatta was a Mughal Empire subdivision that included the Sindh area, now part of Pakistan. It was formerly a part of Multan's Subah, but it was carved away as an independent province. It was administered by a Subehdar whom the Mughal government nominated at the centre.

Subas were subdivided into Sarkars, which were further subdivided into Parganas at the village level. The Faujdar (top executive officer of a Sarkar) was in charge of preserving law and order in his domain and carrying out royal decrees and regulations. He also maintained control over the formidable Zamindars. The next significant officer was Amalguzar or the revenue collector. Shiqdar, with the help of Amil (revenue collector), Amin (assessor of revenue), Patadar (treasurer), Qanungo (keeper of land records), and Bitikchis, administered Pargana's general administration and law and order (clerks). Local tasks were handled by the village head or the Muqaddam (sarpanch). The Patwari aided him by keeping track of the village's revenue.

Land revenue is the main source of income for the Mughal. Akbar established Dahsala/Bandobast Arazi/the Zabti system. The average output of various crops and the average prices during the previous ten years were computed using this method. The share of the state specified in cash was one-third of the average. The land revenue was set based on the consistency and productivity of agriculture. When Polaj (continuously cultivated land) and Parauti (fallow lands for a year) were under cultivation, they were paid full price. After assessing land revenue in kind, the value was converted to cash using a regionally created pricing list, or Dastur-ul-Amal, for various food crops. The empire was divided into many regions-Dastur, at the Pargana level-each with a similar level of productivity. At the tehsil level, the government provided the Dastur-ul-Amal, which described how to land revenue was paid. Each farmer was given a title for land ownership, known as Patta and Qubuliyat (deed of the agreement by which he pays state revenue). Different evaluation systems were used during Akbar's reign.

• Batai or Ghallabakshi (crop-sharing) was the most frequent, and it was divided into three parts.
• Bhaoli: crops were harvested and heaped in the presence of the parties and then split. (ii) Khet Batai – after sowing, separating lands. (iii) Lang Batai- grain heap division.
• Kankut: in Kankut, measuring the land by Jrib or pacing and inspecting standing crops to estimate standing crops.
• Nasaq: a peasant's preliminary calculation of the payment amount based on his previous experience.

The mansabdars are responsible for providing and maintaining soldiers, horse riders, horses, and elephants. A mansabdar was expected to provide the number specified in his selection warrant or implied by his rank. The Mansabdars had three types of troops: Dakhili (those whose services were paid by the state), Ahadis (those whose services were not paid by the state), and Ahadis (those whose services were not paid by the state) (the "gentlemen troopers," who drew higher pay than ordinary servicemen). While providing delegation under their command, the chiefs were also allowed to have some autonomy. The Army's five units were as follows:

• Cavalry consists of two categories of horsemen: I 'Bargir,' troops who receive horses, arms, and clothing from the state, and (ii) Siledar, soldiers who bring their horses and arms.
• Infantry: The infantry was divided into two units: 'Bandukchi' (Riflemen) and 'Samshirbaz' (Samshirbaz) (Swordsmen).
• War elephants: Elephants were utilized for both combat and carrying cargo.
• Artillery: During Akbar's reign, the artillery achieved its pinnacle of proficiency.
• Navy: In comparison to the Europeans, the Mughals had a weak naval base.

The imperial treasury entirely funded the Army's artillery. The Army's organization was sloppy, and a lack of officers hampered the Army's efficiency. Discipline was lacking, especially among the lower levels. The Mughals brought many camp followers with them, including the soldiers' families and the royal harem on occasion; this made the Army an extremely heavy and sluggish force.

The Mughal nobility or mansabdars looked after the administration of the state, the central authority of which lay with the Emperor, like the power of conferring, increasing, decreasing the mansab. Frequent transfers of jagirs were made to maintain insecurities among the Mansabdars. Mansab was the grant to enjoy a jagir given to every official. Jagir was a revenue assignment that served as a substitute for a cash wage (rather than land) in exchange for services. The Mansabdar may earn money from his Jagir by collecting dues from cultivators through the Zamindars. Because no hereditary claim could be asserted, a Mansab's personal property was confiscated by the state upon his death, with the balance owed to the state subtracted and the remainder returned to his heirs. In any section of the empire, Mansabs might be summoned to perform responsibilities in both the military and civic domains. They had a significant impact on the economic, social, and cultural life of the area. The system encouraged the exploitation of those of lower social status, as well as selfishness and corruption.

The land was separated into two categories during Akbar's reign: Khalisa and Jagir. Khalisa's land revenue went directly to the royal treasury, while Jagirs were distributed to Jagirdars according to their rank. Naqdi were mansabdars who received cash payments. The Mansabdars were granted revenue assignments called jagirs, and the assignees were Jagirdars. Under the Delhi Sultans, this was analogous to the Iqtas and Iqtadars. Jagir Tankha (given instead of pay), Mashrut Jagirs (provided under specific conditions), Inam Jagir (provided without any obligation), and Watan Jagir (provided without any obligation) were the four varieties of Jagirs (assigned in the homelands). The Revenue Department kept a Jama-Dami record, which listed the assessed income (Jama) of various dams in dams (40 dams to a rupee). The Jagirs were interchangeable, and no Jagirdar was assigned to the same Jagir for an extended period. This system was designed to test Jagirdars' abilities to maintain a territory and manage Jagirdar exploitation or tyranny.