Muhy-ud-din Muhammad Aurangzeb

Muhi-ud-Din Muhammad (1618 -1707), often known as Aurangzeb, was the sixth Mughal emperor, reigning for 49 years over practically the entire Indian subcontinent. Aurangzeb, widely regarded as the Mughal Empire's last effective emperor, compiled the Fatawa-e-Alamgiri and was one of the few rulers to properly establish Sharia law and Islamic economy over the Indian subcontinent. He was a capable military leader whose leadership has been praised, while he has also been labelled as India's most controversial monarch. He was a noted expansionist, and the Mughal Empire reached its pinnacle during his reign, dominating virtually the whole Indian subcontinent. Victories in the south enlarged the Mughal Empire to 4 million square kilometres during his lifetime, and he ruled over a population of nearly 158 million subjects. During his reign, India eclipsed Qing China as the world's largest economy and manufacturing power, accounting for nearly a quarter of global GDP and more than Western Europe as a whole, and the Bengal Subah, India's largest and wealthiest subdivision, heralded proto-industrialization. Aurangzeb was known for his religious devotion; he memorized the entire Quran, read hadiths, and strictly followed Islamic customs. Unlike his forefathers, including his father Shah Jahan, Aurangzeb saw the royal treasury as a trust for the people of his empire. His costs and the construction of small mosques were financed by his revenues, including the stitching of caps and the trading of his written copies of the Quran. He was also a fan of calligraphy, particularly Islamic and Arabic calligraphy.  Aurangzeb has already been chastised. Critics claim that his policies abandoned his predecessors' legacy of religious tolerance and plurality, citing the jizya tax and other Islamic policies, the demolition of Hindu temples, and his elder brother Dara Shikoh's executions of Maratha ruler Sambhaji, and others. And Sikh Guru Tegh Bahadur, and the prohibition and supervision of forbidding behaviour and activities, among other things. However, some historians reject his rivals' allegations, claiming that he erected temples, paid for their upkeep, hired many more Hindus in his imperial government than his predecessors, and condemned intolerance towards Hindus and Shia Muslims.

Aurangzeb was born at Dahod, Gujarat, on November 3, 1618. He was Shah Jahan and Mumtaz Mahal's third son and sixth child. After his father's failed insurrection in June 1626, Aurangzeb and his brother Dara Shukoh were held as prisoners in the Lahore palace of their grandparents (Nur Jahan and Jahangir). On February 26, 1628, Shah Jahan formally proclaimed Mughal Emperor, and Aurangzeb returned to Agra Fort to reside with his parents, where he received his formal Arabic and Persian education. His daily allowance was Rs. 500, which he used to fund religious education and historical research.

Aurangzeb narrowly missed death on May 28, 1633, when a massive war elephant stampeded through the Mughal Imperial encampment. He rode up against the elephant and used a lance to strike its trunk, thereby defending himself from being crushed. Aurangzeb's heroism was recognized by his father, who bestowed the title of Bahadur (Brave), weighed him in gold, and presented him with gifts totalling Rs. 200,000.

Bundela War

Aurangzeb was ostensibly in charge of the force dispatched to Bundelkhand to subdue Jhujhar Singh, the rebellious ruler of Orchha who had attacked another territory in contravention of Shah Jahan's policies refused to repent. As the Mughal Army gathered and began the Siege of Orchha in 1635, Aurangzeb waited in the rear, away from the battle, and heeded the advice of his generals. Singh was deposed as a result of the campaign's success.

Viceroy of the Deccan

In 1636, Aurangzeb was appointed Viceroy of the Deccan. After Shah Jahan's vassals were devastated by the Nizam Shahi boy-prince Murtaza Shah III's frightening expansion of Ahmednagar, the emperor ordered Aurangzeb, who brought the Nizam Shahi dynasty to an end in 1636. Aurangzeb married Dilras Banu Begum, a Safavid princess who became Rabia-ud-Daurani following her death in 1637. She was his first and only wife, as well as his favourite and most important companion. He also had an infatuation with Hira Bai, a slave girl whose death greatly impacted him when he was young.  He was enchanted by his concubine, Udaipuri Bai, in his old age. Previously, he had been Dara Shukoh's companion. In the same year, 1637, Aurangzeb was tasked with annexing Baglana, a minor Rajput kingdom that he easily conquered. Jahanara, Aurangzeb's sister, was burned at Agra in 1644 when a nearby lamp ignited the chemicals in her perfume. This occurrence triggered a family crisis with political ramifications. Aurangzeb angered his father by not coming to Agra right away but instead three weeks later. Thousands of vassals had flocked to Agra to pay their respects to Shah Jahan, who had been nursing Jahanara back to health. When Shah Jahan saw Aurangzeb enter the internal palace compound dressed in military garb, he instantly fired him from his position as viceroy of the Deccan; Aurangzeb was also forbidden from using red tents associating himself with the Mughal emperor's official military flag. According to other versions, Aurangzeb was fired from his position because he abandoned his life of luxury and became a Faqir. He was prohibited from the court for seven months in 1645 and expressed his anguish to other Mughal officers. Shah Jahan then named him governor of Gujarat, where he performed admirably and was praised for bringing stability to the region. Shah Jahan appointed Aurangzeb as governor of Balkh in 1647, replacing a younger son, Murad Baksh, who had been ineffective. Uzbek and Turkmen tribes were attacking the area. While the Mughal artillery and muskets were formidable, so where their opponents' skirmishing abilities. Aurangzeb understood that his army wouldn't be able to remain on the battlefield, which the war had ravaged. With the arrival of winter, he and his father were forced to strike a bad deal with the Uzbeks, ceding territory in exchange for nominal acknowledgement of Mughal rule. Uzbeks and other tribespeople attacked the Mughal force as it fled through the snow to Kabul. By the end of this two-year campaign, which Aurangzeb was forced into late, a large sum of money had been spent for little gain. Aurangzeb was appointed governor of Multan and Sindh, which led to more unfortunate military involvements. As winter came, his attempts in 1649 and 1652 to oust the Safavids from Kandahar, which they had recently retaken after a decade of Mughal rule, also failed. The logistical difficulties of equipping an army at the far reaches of the empire, combined with poor quality munitions and the opposition's tenacity, were noted by John Richards as reasons for failure, and the third attempt in 1653, headed by Dara Shikoh, failed as well. In the attempt to regain Kandahar, Aurangzeb was replaced by Dara Shukoh, who became viceroy of the Deccan once more. Aurangzeb was disappointed, and he suspected Shikoh of manipulating the situation for his gain. Because the Deccan was a very impoverished area, Aurangbad's two jagirs (land grants) were relocated due to his homecoming, causing him financial loss. The territory was so impoverished that subsidies from Malwa and Gujarat were required to keep the administration running, and the condition fostered resentment between father and son. Aurangzeb's efforts to increase cultivation, Shah Jahan insisted, may improve things. Aurangzeb chose murshid Quli Khan to introduce the zabt income system employed in northern India to the Deccan. Murshid Quli Khan organized a survey of agricultural land and a tax assessment based on the output. Murshid Quli Khan granted loans for seed, livestock, and irrigation facilities to generate earnings. When the Deccan recovered its prosperity, Aurangzeb recommended attacking the dynastic rulers of Golconda (the Qutb Shahis) and Bijapur (the Adil Shahis). In addition to resolving financial issues, the initiative would expand Mughal control by acquiring other areas. Aurangzeb invaded Bidar and besieged the Sultan of Bijapur. Sidi Marjan, the walled city's Kiladar (governor or captain), was killed when a gunpowder magazine exploded. The Mughals conquered Bidar after twenty-seven days of heavy warfare, and Aurangzeb resumed his assault. He believed that Dara had influenced his father once more: believing that he was on the point of victory in both cases, Aurangzeb was enraged because Shah Jahan opted to negotiate with the opposing forces rather than press for total victory.

Administration

In the Mughal government, there were a large number of Hindu officers. Increased from 1679 to 1707. More than doubled, accounting for 31.6 per cent of the Mughal nobles, the greatest proportion in the era. Moreover, many of them were political allies of his, the Marathas and Rajputs.

Institution of Islamic Law

The Fatawa-e-Alamgiri, introduced by Aurangzeb, compiled Hanafi legislation. Aurangzeb was a devout Muslim who ruled with orthodoxy.

Taxation Rule

Aurangzeb forgave more than 80 long-standing taxes affecting all of his citizens shortly after assuming office.

Many Hindu kings, family members of Aurangzeb, and Mughal court officials criticized Aurangzeb's decision to re-impose jizya, a military levy on non-Muslim subjects in lieu of military duty, in 1679, after a hundred-year hiatus. Aurangzeb also imposed a 5-percentage-point difference tax on Hindu merchants (against 2.5 per cent on Muslim merchants).

Strategy on Mosques and Temples

Aurangzeb granted land and gave finances for the upkeep of religious sites, but he also (often) ordered their destruction. Instead of emphasizing the relationship of temples with sovereignty, power, and authority, modern historians reject the thought-school of colonial and nationalist historians that these destructions were motivated by religious zealotry. Aurangzeb demolished more temples than he built.

Execution of Enemies

During Aurangzeb's long rule, the first notable execution was his brother Prince Dara Shikoh. The latter was accused of being influenced by Hinduism, while some sources claim it was done for political purposes. After that, Aurangzeb had his ally Prince Murad Baksh arrested, tried, and killed for murder. Aurangzeb is suspected of poisoning his nephew Sulaiman Shikoh, who is imprisoned.

Development of the Mughal Empire

During a visit to Ladakh in 1663, Aurangzeb established direct control over the region, and loyal subjects like Deldan Namgyal agreed to promise tribute and loyalty. Deldan Namgyal is also credited with building a Grand Mosque in Leh dedicated to the Mughal reign.

Military Tool

During the 17th century, Mughal cannon-making skills improved. The Zafarbaksh, a very uncommon composite cannon that needed expertise in both wrought-iron forge welding and bronze-casting technologies and an in-depth understanding of the characteristics of both metals, is one of the most magnificent Mughal cannons.

War Elephants

In 1703, Daud Khan Panni, the Mughal commander in Coromandel, spent 10,000 coins on 30 to 50 war elephants from Ceylon.

Art and Culture

Aurangzeb was a more austere ruler than his forefathers, and the royal support of figurative Mughal miniatures was drastically decreased. As a result, the court atelier was dispersed to other regional courts. However, he encouraged Islamic calligraphy since he was pious. During his reign, the Lahore Badshahi Masjid and the Bibi Ka Maqbara in Aurangabad were built for his wife, Rabia-ud-Daurani.

In 1659 and 1662, Aurangzeb dispatched diplomatic teams to Mecca, bringing money and gifts for the Sharif. In 1666 and 1672, he also sent alms to Mecca and Medina for distribution.

Relations with the Uzbek

Subhan Quli, the Uzbek ruler of Balkh, was the first to recognize him in 1658 and urge a broad alliance; he had already collaborated with the new Mughal Emperor since 1647 when Aurangzeb was the Subedar of Balkh.

Relations with the French

The French East India Company representatives Le Gouz and Bebert addressed Louis XIV of France with a letter urging the protection of French merchants in the Deccan from numerous insurgents in 1667. In response to the letter, Aurangzeb signed a Firman granting the French permission to establish a factory in Surat.

Relations with the Sultanate of Maldives

In the 1660s, Ibrahim Iskandar I, Sultan of the Maldives, requested assistance from Aurangzeb's agent, the Faujdar Balasore. The Sultan wanted his cooperation in any future expulsions of Dutch and English commerce ships since he was concerned about the Maldives' economy's damage. However, because Aurangzeb lacked a large navy and had no interest in assisting Ibrahim in a future conflict with the Dutch or English, the proposal was turned down.

Relations with the Ottoman Empire

Aurangzeb, like his father, refused to recognize the Ottoman claim to the caliphate. On the contrary, he frequently sided with the Ottoman Empire's foes, extending a warm welcome to two rebel Governors of Basra and bestowing high prestige on them and their families in the imperial service. Aurangzeb ignored Sultan Suleiman II's conciliatory postures. The Sultan, on the other hand, advised Aurangzeb to undertake a holy war against Christians.

Relations with the English and the Anglo-Mughal War

The Anglo-Mughal War began in 1686 after the Honourable East India Company failed to gain a firman that would provide them regular trading privileges throughout the Mughal Empire. The English suffered a crushing defeat in this conflict, particularly in 1689, when Aurangzeb sent a massive fleet of captures from Janjira to blockade Bombay. The ships were operated by Mappila (Ali Raja Ali II) and Abyssinian seamen and were led by Sidi Yaqub. The Company despatched envoys to Aurangzeb's army in 1690, realizing the war was not going well for them, to appeal for a pardon. The Company's envoys knelt before the emperor, agreed to pay a huge indemnity, and promised never to do anything like this again.  With the capture of a Grand Mughal grab caravan at Surat in September 1695, English pirate Henry Every carried out one of the most profitable pirate raids in history. The Indian ships were coming home from their annual pilgrimage to Mecca when the pirates attacked, taking the Ganj-i-Sawai, the Muslim fleet's greatest ship, as well as its escorts. When word of the capture reached the mainland, a furious Aurangzeb threatened to launch a military attack on the English-ruled city of Bombay. Still, he eventually agreed to a settlement when the Company committed to pay financial reparations, which the Mughal authorities valued at £600,000. Meanwhile, Aurangzeb closed down four of the English East India Company's factories, imprisoned the employees and captains (who were nearly killed by a mob), and threatened to stop all English trade in India unless Each was seized. The Privy Council and the East India Company offered a substantial prize for Every's capture, culminating in the world's first global hunt. On the other hand, each one of them managed to avoid being captured. In 1702, Aurangzeb dispatched Daud Khan Panni, the Mughal Empire's Subhedar of the Carnatic province, to besiege and blockade Fort St. George for more than three months. The East India Company instructed the fort's governor, Thomas Pitt, to file a peace suit.

Tribute

Aurangzeb gathered tribute from around the Indian subcontinent and used it to build bases and defenses across the country, particularly in the Carnatic, Deccan, Bengal, and Lahore.

Revenue

Aurangzeb's exchequer raised a record £100 million in annual revenue from 24 provinces through diverse sources such as taxes, customs, and land revenue, among others. He had annual revenue of $450 million, more than ten times that of his French counterpart, Louis XIV.

Coins

Aurangzeb believed that Quranic passages should not be stamped on coins, as they had been in the past, because people's hands and feet continuously touched them. So, on one side, he had the name of the mint city and the year of issuance, and on the other, he had the following couplet.

Traditional and newly cohesive social groups in northern and western India, such as the Marathas, Rajputs, Hindu Jats, Pashtuns, and Sikhs, developed military and governing ambitions under the Mughal rule recognition and military experience, whether through collaboration or opposition.

Jat Rebellion

In 1669, Hindu Jats organized an uprising in Mathura, which is thought to have been sparked by the re-imposition of jizya and the demolition of Hindu temples. Gokula, a rebel landholder from Tilpat, led the Jats. Gokula's riches increased to 93,000 gold coins and hundreds of thousands of silver pieces by the year 1670 when 20,000 Jat rebels were put down, and the Mughal Army took possession of Tilpat. Gokula was apprehended and put to death. However, the Jats attempted to start their insurrection once more. In retribution for his father Gokula's murder, Raja Ram Jat plunders Akbar's mausoleum of its gold, silver, and exquisite carpets, opens Akbar's grave, and drags and burns his bones. Jats also melted two silver doors off the Taj Mahal and blasted off the tops of the minarets on the doorway to Akbar's Tomb. To put down the Jat revolt, Aurangzeb nominated Mohammad Bidar Bakht as commander. Raja Ram Jat was caught and executed on July 4, 1688. As proof, his head was sent to Aurangzeb. However, after Aurangzeb's death, Jats under Badan Singh later established their independent state of Bharatpur.

Mughal–Maratha Wars

While Aurangzeb attacked Golconda and Bijapur in the Deccan in 1657, Shivaji, a Hindu Maratha warrior, utilized guerilla tactics to seize three Adil Shahi forts previously been under his father's command. Shivaji established de facto control of several independent Maratha clans as a result of his conquests. The Marathas pounced on the battling Adil Shahis' flanks, capturing weaponry, forts, and territory. Shivaji's small and ill-equipped army escaped an all-out Adil Shahi assault, and Shivaji personally killed Adil Shahi leader Afzal Khan. The Marathas became a great military force due to this incident, taking more and more Adil Shahi territory. Shivaji then went on to defeat the Mughals in the region. In 1659, Aurangzeb dispatched his maternal uncle and trusty general Shaista Khan, the Wali, to Golconda to reclaim forts lost to Maratha rebels. Shaista Khan moved to Pune after driving into Maratha territory. The Marathas killed Shaista Khan's son in a daring raid on the governor's residence in Pune during a midnight wedding ceremony headed by Shivaji. Shivaji maimed Shaista Khan by cutting off three fingers of his hand. On the other hand, Shaista Khan survived and was re-appointed as Bengal's administrator, later becoming a crucial commander in the fight against the Ahoms. Shivaji took both Mughal and Bijapur forts. Finally, Aurangzeb ordered the Daulatabad Fort armed with two bombards (the Daulatabad Fort was later used as a Mughal bastion during the Deccan Wars).  Aurangzeb also dispatched his Hindu Rajput general Raja Jai Singh of Amber to attack the Marathas. After a bloody struggle in which the Maratha leader Murarbaji was killed, Jai Singh took the fort of Purandar. Shivaji, fearful of loss, agreed to a truce and a meeting with Aurangzeb in Delhi. Shivaji was also guaranteed safety by Jai Singh, who placed him in the custody of his son, the future Raja Ram Singh I. However, the Raja had no control over events at the Mughal court. When Shivaji and his son Sambhaji travelled to Agra to meet Aurangzeb, they were placed under house arrest due to Shivaji's alleged misbehaviour, from which they managed to make a daring escape.  In 1674, Shivaji returned to the Deccan and was anointed Chhatrapati or ruler of the Maratha Kingdom. Shivaji strengthened Maratha power throughout the Deccan until he died in 1680, although Aurangzeb continued to send forces against him. Shivaji's son, Sambhaji, succeeded him. Mughal attempts to rule the Deccan failed militarily and diplomatically. On the other hand, Aurangzeb's third son Akbar, along with a few Muslim Mansabdar allies, defected from the Mughal court and joined Muslim rebels in the Deccan. In response, Aurangzeb relocated his court to Aurangabad and assumed command of the Deccan expedition. After defeating the rebels, Akbar travelled south to seek sanctuary with Shivaji's successor, Sambhaji. Following several fights, Akbar went to Persia and never returned. Sambhaji was arrested and executed by Aurangzeb's soldiers in 1689. His successor Rajaram, subsequently Rajaram's widow Tarabai, and their Maratha army battled against the Mughal Empire in several wars. During the years of unending warfare (1689–1707), the territory changed hands several times. Because the Marathas had no central authority, Aurangzeb was obliged to fight for every inch of land at a considerable personal and financial sacrifice. Even as Aurangzeb advanced west, deep into Maratha territory – taking Satara in particular - the Marathas pushed eastwards into Mughal borders, settling in Malwa and Hyderabad. The Marathas also conquered autonomous local kings in Southern India, taking Jinji in Tamil Nadu. For more than two decades, Aurangzeb fought a never-ending war in the Deccan. As a result, he lost nearly a quarter of his army battling Maratha rebellions in Deccan India. He travelled a great distance to the Deccan to conquer the Marathas and died at 88 while still fighting them. In the Deccan region, Aurangzeb's move from conventional warfare to anti-insurgency shifted the paradigm of Mughal military thought. In Pune, Jinji, Malwa, and Vadodara, there were clashes between Marathas and Mughals. During the time of Aurangzeb, the Mughal Empire's port city of Surat was attacked twice by the Marathas, leaving the lucrative port in ruins. During the Mughal–Maratha Wars, Matthew White estimates that 2.5 million of Aurangzeb's army were slain (100,000 per year for a quarter-century). At the same time, 2 million people died owing to drought, pestilence, and famine in war-torn provinces.

Unlike his forefathers, Aurangzeb believed that the royal treasure should be maintained in trust for the people of his empire. To supplement his income, he produced hats and transcribed the Quran. In the Red Fort complex in Delhi, Aurangzeb built the Moti Masjid (Pearl Mosque), a modest marble mosque. His continual battle, particularly with the Marathas, brought his empire to the brink of ruin, just as his predecessors' extravagant personal expenditures and splendor had. Even when he was sick and dying, Aurangzeb ensured that the people knew he was still alive because if they didn't, another succession battle would erupt. On March 3, 1707, he died at the age of 88 in his military post in Bhingar, near Ahmednagar, having outlived several of his children. He barely had 300 rupees with him, which he later donated to charity as per his wishes, and he wanted that his funeral is kept modest rather than lavish. His simple open-air tomb in Khuldabad, Aurangabad, Maharashtra, reflects his deep commitment to his Islamic faith. It is located in the courtyard of the Sufi saint Shaikh Burhan-u'd-din Gharib's shrine, a pupil of Delhi's Nizamuddin Auliya. Aurangzeb's son, Bahadur Shah I, succeeded him, and the empire entered a period of terminal decline due to both Aurangzeb's over-extension and Bahadur Shah's weak military and leadership qualities. The Maratha Empire, which Aurangzeb had kept at bay by incurring high human and monetary costs even on his empire, consolidated and launched aggressive assaults of Mughal territory, snatching control from the feeble emperor, almost immediately after Bahadur Shah assumed the throne. Beyond the walls of Delhi, Aurangzeb's Mughal Emperor had limited power within decades after his death.

His critics believe that his cruelty and religious prejudice rendered him unfit to rule over his empire's diverse population. According to some critics, the persecution of Shias, Sufis, and non-Muslims to impose orthodox Islamic state practices such as the imposition of sharia and jizya religious taxes on non-Muslims, doubling of custom duties on Hindus while abolishing it for Muslims, executions of Muslims and non-Muslims alike, and destruction of temples led to a slew of rebellions.