Shahab-ud-din Muhammad Khurram

Shah Jahan was the fifth Mughal emperor, reigning from 1628 to 1658. His regnal name was Shahab-ud-din Muhammad Khurram (the 5th of January, 1592, to the 22nd of January, 1666). The Mughal Empire reached its pinnacle of cultural grandeur during its rule. Despite his military prowess, Shah Jahan is most known for his architectural achievements. The golden period of Mughal architecture began during his reign. Shah Jahan built several structures, the most famous of which is the Taj Mahal in Agra, where his favourite wife, Mumtaz Mahal, is interred. His connection with Mumtaz Mahal has influenced Indian art, literature, and cinema. He had the royal treasury and several valuable stones, including the Kohinoor, and was therefore often considered the wealthiest Indian in history. Of Emperor Jahangir's four sons, Shah Jahan is regarded as the most capable. After Jahangir died in late 1627, a succession struggle ensued, with Shah Jahan emerging triumphant after considerable intrigue. In January 1628, he executed all of his competitors for the throne. He proclaimed himself emperor in Agra, using the regnal title "Shah Jahan" (originally given to him as a princely title). Several great construction projects were completed during his reign, notably the Red Fort and the Shah Jahan Mosque. War with the Safavids, strife with the Portuguese, and favourable ties with the Ottoman Empire characterized foreign policy. Domestic problems included putting down multiple rebellions and the catastrophic famine that afflicted the country from 1630 to 1632. Shah Jahan became critically sick in September 1657. This sparked a succession battle among his four sons, with Aurangzeb emerging triumphant and usurping his father's throne. Although Shah Jahan recovered from his sickness, Emperor Aurangzeb imprisoned his father in Agra Fort from July 1658 until January 1666. He was then buried at the Taj Mahal along with his wife.

Birth and Background

The third son of Prince Salim Shahab-ud-din Muhammad Khurram (later known as 'Jahangir' following his succession) and was born on the 5th of January, 1592, in Lahore, Pakistan. Princess Jagat Gosaini, a Rajput princess from Marwar, was his mother (her official name in Mughal chronicles was Bilqis Makani). The young prince was given the name "Khurram" (joyous) by his grandpa, Emperor Akbar, whom he strongly connected. A soothsayer had purportedly foretold Akbar's first wife and principal consort, Empress Ruqaiya Sultan Begum, that the unborn child would be destined for imperial glory just before his birth. So, when Khurram was just six days old when he was born in 1592, Akbar commanded that the prince be aside away from his mother and thereby transferred over to Ruqaiya so that Akbar might fulfil his wife's goal of raising a Mughal monarch. Ruqaiya took main responsibility for Khurram's upbringing, and she raised him. They had a tight friendship. Ruqaiya adored Jahangir's son, Khurram, "a thousand times more than if he had been her son," according to Jahangir's memoirs. Khurram stayed with her till he was about 14 years old. The young prince was permitted to return to his father's home after Akbar's death in 1605, allowing him to be closer to his biological mother.

Education

Khurram received a comprehensive education befitting his status as a Mughal prince as a child, which included both martial training and also have exposure to a variety of different forms of cultural arts, such as  Hindustani classical music, poetry the majority of which was instilled by Akbar and Ruqaiya, according to court chroniclers. Khurram, who was 13 at the time, remained at Akbar's bedside on his deathbed in 1605 and refused to go even when his mother tried to rescue him. Given the politically tumultuous years that preceded Akbar's murder, Khurram was in much bodily danger from his father's political opponents, and his behaviour at the time may be seen as a prelude to the courage for which he would later be known.

Khusrau Rebellion

Khurram remained away from court politics and intrigues in the early aftermath of his father's ascension to 1605. After suppressing a revolt by Prince Khusrau, this was an intentional decision on Jahangir's side. As the third son, Khurram did not confront the two primary power blocs of the period, his father's and his step-brother's, and therefore benefited from imperial protection and luxury continuing his education and training. Khurram was able to develop his support network in the Mughal court during this relatively peaceful and steady phase of his life, which he would later utilize.

Nur Jahan

Due to long-standing difficulties between his father and step-brother, Khurram began to gravitate toward his father, and over time, court chroniclers began to see him as the de facto heir-apparent. When Jahangir awarded Khurram the sarkar of Hissar-Feroza, which had historically been the fief of the heir-apparent, in 1608, this position was formalized. Nur Jahan was a lovely and bright lady with a strong educational background. She was a key player in Jahangir's decision-making process. Jahangir progressively got more enamoured with liquor and opium as she grew to be the true power behind the throne. Coins bearing her name and Jahangir's name began to be minted. Her close family rose through the ranks of the Mughal court, which historians refer to as the Nur Jahan junta. Nur Jahan was placed under house imprisonment after Jahangir's death in 1627 and lived a peaceful life till her death.

Khurram married Arjumand Banu Begum (1593–1631), better known as Mumtaz Mahal, in 1607. They met while they were young. They were 14 and 15 years old when they got engaged, and they married five years later. The young girl was from a prestigious Persian noble family that had served Mughal Emperors since Akbar's reign. Mirza Ghiyas Beg, also known as I'timd-ud-Daulah, was the patriarch of the family (Pillar of the State). Asaf Khan Arjumand Banu, his son, Jahangir's finance minister, and his father, Asaf Khan Arjumand Banu, were key figures in the Mughal court, eventually serving as Chief Minister. Her aunt, Empress Nur Jahan, is thought to have played matchmaker in the wedding arrangements. The prince would have to wait another five years to marry in 1612, on a date chosen by the royal astrologers as the most favourable for a joyful marriage. For the period, this was an exceptionally extended engagement.

On the other hand, Shah Jahan married Princess Kandahari Begum, the daughter of Shah Ismail I of Persia's great-grandson, with whom he had a daughter, his first child. Khurram was granted various jagirs, including Hissar-Feroze, and exalted to a military rank of 8,000, allowing him to carry on formal state tasks and supporting his claim to the throne. Khurram married Arjumand Banu Begum, who became known as Mumtaz Mahal, on the fortunate date picked by court astrologers in 1612, when he was 20 years old. The marriage was joyful, and Khurram was faithful to her. She gave birth to fourteen children, seven of whom lived to adulthood. Khurram also has two children with his first two spouses. Arjumand Banu Begum was a politically adept woman who functioned as a significant advisor and confidante to her husband, despite their real love. Mumtaz Mahal later had enormous influence as empress, including being advised by her husband on state problems and being in charge of the imperial seal, which enabled her to inspect official papers in their final draft. Mumtaz Mahal died at Burhanpur on the 7th of June, 1631, at 38, while giving birth to Gauhar Ara Begum. Her remains were temporarily interred in Zainabad, a walled pleasure garden built along the Tapti River by Shah Jahan's uncle Prince Daniyal. Her death shaped Shah Jahan's personality and prompted the construction of the Taj Mahal, where she was later reburied. Khurram had acquired eight additional wives in the intervening years, including Kandahari Begum and Izz un-Nisa Begum, daughters of Muzaffar Husain Mirza Safawi and Shahnawaz Khan, son of Abdul Rahim Khan-I-Khana, respectively. However, according to court chroniclers, his relationships with his other wives were more political, and they only had the status of royal spouses.

Prince Khurram had exceptional military prowess. Khurram's military prowess was first put to the test during the Mughal battle against the Rajput kingdom of Mewar, which had been an enemy of the Mughals since Akbar's reign. Khurram launched his assault against Mewar in 1614, with a force of about 20,000 men. Rana Amar Singh, I submitted conditionally to Mughal forces after a year of attrition warfare and became a vassal kingdom of the Mughal Empire. Khurram was assigned to deal with the Lodis in the Deccan in 1617 to protect the Empire's southern frontiers and reclaim the imperial authority of the region. As a result of his victories in these wars, Jahangir bestowed upon him the title of Shah Jahan (Persian: "King of the World"), upgraded his military rank, and bestowed upon him a special throne in his Durbar, an unusual distinction for a prince, further cementing his position as crown prince. "He was flattered by some, envious by others, and loved by none," says Edward S. Holden.

The Mughal Empire's authority and riches were passed down by royal sons vying for military victories and strengthening their position at court rather than through primogeniture. This frequently resulted in rebellions and succession conflicts. As a result, throughout Khurram's formative years, the Mughal court was surrounded by a complicated political atmosphere. His father married Nur Jahan, a widowed Persian noblewoman, in 1611. She quickly rose to prominence in Jahangir's court and, together with her brother Asaf Khan, held great power. Asaf Khan's daughter, Arjumand, married Khurram, solidifying Nur Jahan and Asaf Khan's standing at court. However, court intrigues such as Nur Jahan's choice to marry her daughter from her first marriage to Prince Khurram's younger brother Shahzada Shahryar and her backing for his claim to the throne caused considerable internal strife. Prince Khurram despised Nur Jahan's power over his father and disliked being forced to play second fiddle to her favourite Shahryar, his half-brother, and her son-in-law. Nur Jahan was in charge of affairs when the Persians attacked Kandahar.

Prince Khurram was commanded to march to Kandahar, but he refused. Kandahar fell to the Persians after a 45-day siege due to Prince Khurram's unwillingness to accept Nur Jahan's commands. In his absence, Prince Khurram worried that Nur Jahan would try to kill his father and persuade Jahangir to appoint Shahryar as the heir in his stead. Because of his dread, Prince Khurram chose to revolt against his father rather than confront the Persians. In 1622, Prince Khurram, with the help of Mahabat Khan, gathered an army and marched against his father and Nur Jahan. In March 1623, he was beaten at Bilochpur. Later, he sought sanctuary with Maharaja Karan Singh II in Udaipur, Mewar. On his request, he was first housed at Delwada Ki Haveli and then transferred to Jagmandir Palace. Prince Khurram's turban exchanged with the Maharana is still on display at the Pratap Museum in Udaipur. R V Somani (R V Somani, 1976). It is thought that Jagmandir's mosaic artistry prompted him to utilize mosaics in the Taj Mahal in Agra. Khurram was compelled to capitulate unconditionally when his revolt failed. Despite the prince's pardon in 1626, tensions between Nur Jahan and her stepson continued to simmer under the surface. Following Jahangir's death in 1627, the wazir Asaf Khan, who had long been a silent supporter of Prince Khurram, acted with surprising zeal and resolved to prevent his sister, the empress Nur Jahan, from putting Prince Shahryar on the throne. He confined Nur Jahan to a little space. He seized custody of Prince Khurram's three boys, whom she was raising. Asaf Khan also handled court intrigues to guarantee Prince Khurram's royal ascension. As Abu ud-Muzaffar Shihab ud-Din, Prince Khurram succeeded to the Mughal throne. Mohammad Sahib ud-Quiran ud-Thani Mohammad Sahib ud-Quiran ud-Thani Mohammad Sahib Shah Jahan Padshah Ghazi, or Shah Jahan, was a king of the Mughal Empire. His regnal name is made up of several components. Shihab ud-Din, which means "Star of Faith," and Sahib al-Quran ud-Thani, means "Second Lord of Jupiter and Venus's Happy Conjunction." Shah Jahan, which describes "King of the World," refers to his pride in his Timurid ancestors as well as his ambitions. More epithets demonstrated his secular as well as religious responsibilities. He was also known as Khalifat Panahi ("Refuge of the Caliphate"), but he was also known as Zill-i Allahi, or "God's Shadow on Earth." His first move as ruler was to have his main opponents executed and his stepmother Nur Jahan imprisoned. On the 23rd of January 1628, many executions were carried out on Shah Jahan's instructions. His brother Shahryar, his nephews Dawar and Garshasp, sons of Shah Jahan's previously killed brother Prince Khusrau, and his cousins Tahmuras and Hoshang, sons of the late Prince Daniyal Mirza, were among those executed. As a result, Shah Jahan was able to administer his realm without interference.

Administration-Mughal Empire

According to evidence from Shah Jahan's reign, the army in 1648 included 911,400 infantry, musketeers, artillery troops, and 185,000 Sowars commanded by princes and nobles. His early cultural and political steps have been compared to a Timurid Renaissance. He forged historical and political ties with his Timurid ancestors, primarily through his repeated unsuccessful military operations in his native area of Balkh. Shah Jahan took his Timurid heritage in many forms and grafted it upon his imperial legacy. During his reign, the Marwari horse was introduced, and different Mughal cannons were mass-produced at the Jaigarh Fort, which became Shah Jahan's favourite. The Empire grew into a massive military machine under his leadership. The number of nobles and their contingents nearly quadrupled, as did the demands for higher income from the people. However, it was a period of overall stability owing to his financial and commercial measures—the administration was consolidated, and court matters were systematized. During his reign, the Mughal Empire expanded considerably as his sons led vast armies on many fronts. At the time, India was a thriving centre for the arts, crafts, and architecture, and Shah Jahan's kingdom was home to some of the world's greatest architects, artisans, painters, and authors. According to economist Angus Maddison, India's share of global GDP increased from 22.7 per cent in 1600 to 24.4 per cent in 1700, overtaking China to become the world's largest economy. According to E. Dewick and Murray Titus, 76 temples in Benares were razed on Shah Jahan's orders, citing Badshahnama.

1630 Famine

Three major crop failures caused a famine in the Deccan, Gujarat, and Khandesh in 1630–32.  Grocers sold dogs' meat and combined powdered bones with flour, resulting in the deaths of two million people. Parents have been known to eat their offspring. Some communities were entirely devastated, with human bodies littering the streets. As a result of the destruction, Shah Jahan established langar (free kitchens) for the famine victims.

Connection with Deccan Sultanates

Shah Jahan imprisoned Husain Shah of the Nizam Shahi Kingdom of Ahmednagar at the stronghold of Daulatabad, Maharashtra, in 1632. In 1635, Golconda surrendered, followed by Bijapur in 1636. Aurangzeb was assigned Viceroy of the Deccan by Shah Jahan, including Khandesh, Berar, Telangana, and Daulatabad. Aurangzeb captured Baglana, Golconda in 1656, and Bijapur in 1657 under his viceroyalty.

Sikh rebellion led by Guru Hargobind

In response to the Sikh revolt headed by Guru Hargobind, Shah Jahan ordered the burning of the Sikh gurudwara in Lahore.

Connection with Safavid Dynasty

In 1638, Shah Jahan and his sons seized Kandahar from the Safavids, provoking Persian retribution led by their ruler Abbas II of Persia, who regained the city in 1649. Despite numerous sieges during the Mughal–Safavid War, the Mughal troops were unable to retake it. Shah Jahan also stretched the Mughal Empire westward, reaching Ghazna and Kandahar beyond the Khyber Pass.

Connection with Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman Sultan Murad IV visited Shah Jahan's emissaries, Mir Zarif and Mir Baraka, while encamped in Baghdad and was given 1000 highly embroidered fabric and even armour. Murad IV lavished them with the finest weaponry, saddles, and Kaftans and ordered his soldiers to follow the Mughals to Basra, from whence they made ship for Thatta and then Surat.

Combat with Portuguese

In 1631, Shah Jahan ordered Qasim Khan, the Mughal ruler of Bengal, to force the Portuguese out of their trade station at Port Hoogly. Cannons, warships, reinforced walls, and other military instruments were stationed at the site. High Mughal authorities accused the Portuguese of trafficking, and the Mughal-controlled port of Saptagram started to suffer from trade rivalry. The operations of the Jesuits in that region infuriated Shah Jahan, particularly when they were accused of kidnapping peasants. The Mughal Army hoisted imperial flags and took possession of the Bandel area on the 25th of September, 1632, and the garrison was chastised.

Ministers

Sheikh Farid, who created Faridabad, was Shah Jahan's treasurer.

When Shah Jahan fell ill in 1658, Dara Shikoh (Mumtaz Mahal's eldest son) took over as regent in his father's place, causing his brothers to become enraged. When his younger brothers, Shuja, Viceroy of Bengal, and Murad Baksh, Viceroy of Gujarat, learned of his regency, they declared independence and marched to Agra to seize their inheritance. The third son, Aurangzeb, collected a well-trained army and became its commander. During the Battle of Samugarh, he confronted Dara's army near Agra and defeated him. Although Shah Jahan recovered completely from his sickness, Aurangzeb declared him unable to reign and imprisoned him in Agra Fort. Mumtaz Mahal's first daughter, Jahanara Begum Sahib, voluntarily shared his 8-year confinement and nursed him in his old age. Shah Jahan became unwell in January 1666. Confined to his bed, he grew worse until, on the 22nd of January, he entrusted the ladies of the imperial court, including his subsequent consort Akbarabadi Mahal, to Jahanara's care. Shah Jahan died at the age of 74 after reciting the Kal'ma (Laa ilaaha ill Allah) and Quran verses. Sayyid Muhammad Qanauji, Shah Jahan's chaplain, and Kazi Qurban of Agra arrived at the fort, took his body to an adjacent hall, cleaned it, enshrouded it, and placed it in a sandalwood coffin. Princess Jahanara had arranged a state funeral for Shah Jahan, which would feature a procession with famous nobles carrying Shah Jahan's body and notable people and officials sprinkling coins for the poor and needy. Aurangzeb did not tolerate such ostentation. The body was transported to the Taj Mahal and interred alongside his loving wife, Mumtaz Mahal.

During Shah Jahan's reign, he built a plethora of magnificent structures. He was a staunch supporter of Mughal architecture. His most renowned structure was the Taj Mahal, which he erected for his wife, Empress Mumtaz Mahal, out of love. Its design was meticulously designed, and architects from all around the world were enlisted to help. The structure took twenty years to finish and was made of white marble with brick underlayment. When he died, his son Aurangzeb had him buried there with Mumtaz Mahal. The Red Fort, also known as the Delhi Fort or Lal Qila in Urdu, large sections of the Agra Fort, the Jama Masjid, the Wazir Khan Mosque, the Moti Masjid, the Shalimar Gardens, sections of the Lahore Fort, the Mahabat Khan Mosque in Peshawar, the Mini Qutub Minar in Hastsal, and the Jahangir mausoleum—his father's tomb, which his stepmother oversaw To commemorate his reign, he had the Peacock Throne, Takht e Taus, built. On his architectural wonders, Shah Jahan inscribed deep passages from the Quran. The Shah Jahan Mosque was erected in 1647 during Shah Jahan's reign in Thatta, Sindh province of Pakistan (100 kilometres / 60 miles from Karachi). The mosque is made of red bricks with blue glazed tiles that were most likely imported from Hala, Sindh. The mosque contains 93 domes, making it the world's biggest mosque with this many domes. It was designed with acoustics in mind. When a person speaking within one end of the dome speaks loudly enough, it may be heard at the other end. Since 1993, the great monument has been on the tentative UNESCO World Heritage list. Shah Jahan continued to produce coins in gold (mohur), silver (rupee), and copper (dam). The name Khurram appears on his pre-accession coins.