Jalal-ud-din Muhammad Akbar

Jalal-ud-din Abu'l-Fath Muhammad Akbar was the third Mughal emperor, reigning from 1556 until 1605. He was also known as Akbar the Great, and Akbar I. Akbar succeeded his father, Humayun, as Emperor of India, with the support of a regent, Bairam Khan, who assisted the young Emperor in expanding consolidating Mughal holdings throughout India. Akbar progressively distended the Mughal Empire to include much of the Indian subcontinent with a strong personality and a successful general. However, his power and influence extended over the entire subcontinent because of Mughal military, political, cultural, and economic dominance. To unite the enormous Mughal kingdom, Akbar instituted a centralised administrative system across his empire and pursued conciliation with defeated monarchs through marriage and diplomacy. In addition, he established policies that garnered his non-Muslim subjects' allegiance to maintain peace and order in a religiously and culturally diverse empire. Rather than tribal ties or Islamic state identity, Akbar sought to unite his realm's far-flung provinces through Indo-Persian culture-based loyalty to himself as Emperor. As a result, Mughal India developed a robust and stable economy, increasing commercial expansion and cultural patronage. Akbar was a great devotee of the arts and culture. He loved books and amassed over 24,000 volumes in Sanskrit, Urdu, Persian, Greek, Latin, Arabic, and Kashmiri, which was manned by a team of scholars, translators, artists, calligraphers, scribes, bookbinders, and readers. Through three main groupings, he conducted a lot of the cataloguing himself. Akbar also constructed the Fatehpur Sikri library specifically for women, and he directed that schools for both Muslims and Hindus be established across the kingdom. He also pushed for bookbinding to be recognised as a fine art form. His court was graced with holy men of all faiths, poets, architects, and artisans from all over the world for study and conversation.

The courts of Akbar at Delhi, Agra, and Fatehpur Sikri became hotbeds of the arts, letters, and study. Timurid and Perso-Islamic culture began to meld with indigenous Indian components, resulting in a distinct Indo-Persian civilisation marked by Mughal-style arts, painting, and architecture. Disillusioned with orthodox Islam and maybe seeking to bring religious unity to his kingdom, Akbar published Din-i-Ilahi, a syncretic ideology formed primarily from Islam and Hinduism, with some Zoroastrianism and Christianity thrown in for good measure. The reign of Akbar had a profound impact on Indian history. The Mughal Empire expanded in size and wealth during his reign. He established a strong military and implemented significant political and social reforms. He was the first Mughal monarch to gain the trust and devotion of the local subjects by removing the sectarian levy on non-Muslims and assigning them to top civil and military positions. He had Sanskrit literature translated and took part in native celebrations, realising that a stable kingdom depended on his subjects' cooperation and goodwill. During his reign, the foundations for a cosmopolitan kingdom under Mughal control were built. His son, Prince Salim, later recognized as Jahangir, succeeded Akbar as Emperor.

Mughal emperor Humayun fled westward to Sindh after being defeated by Sher Shah Suri's army in Chausa and Kannauj in 1539 and 1541. He met and married Hamida Banu Begum, then 14 years old, the daughter of Shaikh Ali Akbar Jami, Humayun's younger brother Hindal Mirza's Persian tutor. Jalal ud-din Ayatollah Khomeini The following year, on 15 October 1542, Muhammad Akbar was born at the Rajput Fortress of Amarkot in Rajputana (modern-day Sindh), where his parents had sought safety from the local Hindu ruler Rana Prasad. Akbar was raised in Kabul by the extended family of his paternal uncles, Kamran Mirza and Askari Mirza, and his aunts, particularly Kamran Mirza's wife, during Humayun's long exile. He spent his childhood learning to hunt, run, and fight, and as a result, he grew into a courageous, powerful, and fearless warrior, but he never learned to read or write. However, this did not stifle his quest for knowledge, as it is stated that when he superannuated in the evening, he would have someone read to him. Hindal Mirza, Humayun's younger brother, perished in a battle against Kamran Mirza's army on 20 November 1551. Humayun was overcome with grief when he learned of his brother's death.

Humayun engaged Hindal's nine-year-old daughter, Ruqaiya Sultan Begum, to his son Akbar out of admiration for his brother's memory. Their wedding took place in Kabul, shortly after Akbar was appointed viceroy of the Ghazni region. Humayun bestowed all of Hindal and Ghazni's wealth, army, and adherents on the imperial pair. One of Hindal's jagir was granted to his nephew, Akbar, who was made ruler of the state and commanded his uncle's army. When both of them were 14 years old, Akbar married Ruqaiya in Jalandhar, Punjab. She was his first and only wife, as well as his chief consort. Humayun reconquered Delhi in 1555, led by his Persian friend Tahmasp I, after the instability surrounding the sequence of Sher Shah Suri's son Islam Shah. Humayun died a few months later. Bairam Khan, Akbar's guardian, kept the death a secret to prepare for Akbar's succession. During a fight against Sikandar Shah to restore the Mughal throne, Akbar succeeded Humayun on 14 February 1556. Bairam Khan enthroned the 14-year-old Akbar on a newly constructed platform in Kalanaur, Punjab, which still stands today. He was given the title of Shahanshah. Until he reached the age of majority, Bairam Khan ruled on his behalf.

Military Inventions:

Because of his various successes, particularly his record of unbroken military operations that strengthened Mughal control in the Indian subcontinent, Akbar was given the title "The Great." Akbar's skilful structural and organisational standardization of the Mughal army was the foundation of this military strength and authority. The Mansabdari system, in particular, has received praise for its role in preserving Mughal rule during Akbar's reign. The system remained mostly unchanged until the end of the Mughal Empire, but his successors gradually weakened it. Inventions in cannons, fortifications, and the use of elephants followed organisational improvements. Matchlocks piqued Akbar's curiosity, and he used them efficiently in different conflicts. To obtain rifles and artillery, he sought the assistance of Ottomans and, increasingly, Europeans, particularly Portuguese and Italians. Mughal firearms were significantly superior to anything used by regional kings, tributaries, or zamindars during Akbar's reign. Except for Turkey, these weapons had such an impact that Akbar's Vizier, Abul Fazl, once remarked that there is maybe no country where its guns had more means of securing the government. As a result, scholars and historians have often used the term "gunpowder empire" to describe India's Mughals' triumph. Mughal power has been attributed to their mastery of military techniques, particularly weapons, which Akbar supported.

Struggle for North India:

With the help of the Safavids, Akbar's father, Humayun, regained control of the Punjab, Delhi, and Agra. However, even in these territories, Mughal sovereignty remained insecure, and when the Surs reconquered Agra and Delhi after Humayun's death, the fate of the boy emperor seemed dubious. The situation was made worse by Akbar's minority and the absence of military aid from the Mughal bastion of Kabul, under siege by the ruler of Badakhshan, Prince Mirza Suleiman. None of Akbar's chieftains agreed when his regent, Bairam Khan, convened a council of war to organise the Mughal armies. However, Bairam Khan was able to defeat the nobles, and it was determined that the Mughals would march against the greatest of the Sur rulers in the Punjab, Sikandar Shah Suri. Tardi Baig Khan was entrusted with the regency of Delhi. On the other hand, Sikandar Shah Suri was unconcerned about Akbar and avoided fighting as the Mughal army neared. Hemu, a minister as well as general of one of the Sur monarchs, had declared himself a Hindu emperor and ousted the Mughals from the Indo-Gangetic plains, posing the most serious threat. Akbar marched on Delhi to recover it, prompted by Bairam Khan, who re-marshalled the Mughal army before Hemu could secure his position. On 5 November 1556, at the Second Combat of Panipat, 80 kilometres north of Delhi, his military, led by Bairam Khan, beaten Hemu and the Sur army. Mughal soldiers took Delhi and subsequently Agra shortly after the fight. Akbar arrived in Delhi triumphantly, where he stayed for a month. He and Bairam Khan then went back to Punjab to deal with Sikandar Shah, who had resurfaced. In the subsequent six months, the Mughals gained another significant fight against Sikander Shah Suri, who fled east to Bengal. In Punjab, Akbar and his soldiers conquered Lahore and subsequently seized Multan. After defeating and fleeing its Muslim monarch, Akbar seized possession of Ajmer, the gateway to Rajputana, in 1558. The Mughals also attacked and conquered the Sur troops occupying Gwalior Fort, the most powerful bastion north of the Narmada River. At the time, royal begums and the families of Mughal amirs were ultimately carried over from Kabul to India. Akbar had said unequivocally that the Mughals intended to remain in India. This was a great cry from his grandfather's, Babur's, father's, Humayun's political settlements, which had done little to demonstrate that they were anything more than temporary rulers. However, Akbar methodically reintroduced a Timurid Renaissance historical legacy that his forefathers had left behind.

Development into Central India

By 1559, the Mughals had started an invasion of Rajputana and Malwa from the south. The development was temporarily halted because Akbar disagreed with his regent, Bairam Khan. At the age of eighteen, the young Emperor desired to be more involved in the administration of the state. Akbar opted to forego Bairam Khan's services after being persuaded by his foster mother, Maham Anga, and other relatives. After yet another court battle in the spring of 1560, Akbar finally dismissed Bairam Khan and ordered him to go on Hajj to Mecca. Bairam Khan set out towards Mecca, but his opponents urged him to rebel along the road. In Punjab, he was defeated by the Mughal army and compelled to submit. However, Akbar forgave him and offered him to continue in his court or return to his pilgrimage; Bairam chose the latter. Later, Bairam Khan was slain on his trip to Mecca, apparently by an Afghan having a personal grudge against him. Akbar resumed military actions in 1560. The Mughal invasion of Malwa began with a Mughal army led by his adopted brother, Adham Khan, and Pir Muhammad Khan. After being defeated at the Battle of Sarangpur, Afghan monarch Baz Bahadur fled to Khandesh for sanctuary, leaving his harem, money, and war elephants. Despite its initial success, the campaign was a catastrophe in Akbar's eyes. His foster brother kept all the loot and carried out the Central Asian custom of slaughtering the surrendering garrison, their wives and children, as well as a large number of Muslim theologians and Sayyids, who were Muhammad's descendants. To face Adham Khan and relieve him of authority, Akbar himself rode to Malwa. Pir Muhammad Khan was dispatched to track down Baz Bahadur but was defeated by a Khandesh and Berar kings coalition. Baz Bahadur briefly regained control of Malwa until Akbar led another Mughal army to conquer and seize the kingdom the following year. Malwa was made a province of Akbar's nascent imperial authority. Baz Bahadur remained a fugitive at several courts for eight years before joining Akbar's army in 1570. Despite his ultimate victory in Malwa, the struggle strained Akbar's personal relationships with his relatives and Mughal nobles. In 1562, when Adham Khan faced Akbar over another argument, the Emperor beat him down and threw him from a terrace into the royal courtyard at Agra. Adham Khan was still alive when he was taken up and flung into the courtyard by Akbar to ensure his death. Akbar was now on a mission to eradicate the threat of overbearing subjects. He established specialised ministerial roles for imperial governance, and no member of the Mughal elite was to have absolute power. In 1564, when a great clan of Uzbek lords revolted, Akbar decisively crushed and routed them in Malwa and subsequently Bihar. He pardoned the rebellious leaders in the hopes of appeasing them, but they rebelled again, and Akbar had to put down the rebellion for the second time. His patience was ultimately tested after a third insurrection with the announcement of Mirza Muhammad Hakim, Akbar's brother and the Mughal sovereign of Kabul, as Emperor. Several Uzbek chieftains were killed, and the rebel commanders were trampled to death by elephants. At the same time, the Mirzas, a group of Akbar's distant cousins who controlled key fiefs near Agra, rose in revolt. They, too, were assassinated and expelled from the empire. In 1566, Akbar prepared to confront his brother, Muhammad Hakim, who had marched into Punjab to capture the imperial crown. On the other hand, Muhammad Hakim recognised Akbar's dominance after a brief confrontation and returned to Kabul. Mughal soldiers launched the invasion of Garha in 1564, a sparsely populated, hilly region in central India that the Mughals were interested in because of its herd of wild elephants. Raja Vir Narayan, his mother, Durgavati, a Rajput warrior queen of the Gonds, governed the territory. Because he was concerned with the Uzbek uprising, Akbar did not personally lead the campaign, instead of entrusting it to Asaf Khan, the Mughal Governor of Kara. After her defeat in the Battle of Damoh, Durgavati committed suicide, while Raja Vir Narayan was killed at the Fall of Chauragarh, the Gonds' mountain citadel. The Mughals seized vast sums of money, including untold amounts of gold and silver, as well as jewellery and 1000 elephants. Durgavati's younger sister, Kamala Devi, was taken to the Mughal harem. The Mughal administrator of the province was appointed as the brother of Durgavati's deceased husband. However, like in Malwa, Akbar had a disagreement with his vassals regarding the conquest of Gondwana. Asaf Khan was accused of keeping the majority of the treasures while only returning 200 elephants to Akbar. He fled Gondwana when he was compelled to give accounts. He first went to the Uzbeks before returning to Gondwana and being followed by Mughal armies. Finally, he gave in and was reinstated in his previous position by Akbar.

Attempt to Murder Akbar: An assassination attempt on Akbar was also reported. An assassin shot an arrow at Akbar as he returned from visiting Hazrat Nizamuddin's dargah near Delhi. The arrow penetrated his right shoulder. The assassin was arrested, and the Emperor ordered his beheading. The perpetrator was a slave of Mirza Sharfuddin, a noble in Akbar's court whose insurrection had lately been put down.

Conquest of Rajputana

Following the conquest of northern India by the Mughals, Akbar turned his focus to the invasion of Rajputana. If a competing centre of power existed on its flank in Rajputana, no majestic power in India grounded on the Indo-Gangetic plains could be secure. In Mewat, Ajmer, and Nagor, the Mughals had already established dominance over sections of northern Rajputana. Akbar was now resolved to drive into the heartlands of the Rajput kings, who had never succumbed to the Muslim rulers of the Delhi Sultanate before. The Mughals began aggressively engaging the Rajputs in combat and diplomacy in 1561. The sovereigns of Mewar and Marwar, Udai Singh and Chandrasen Rathore, remained outside the imperial fold, although most Rajput states acknowledged Akbar's suzerainty. Rana Udai Singh was a descendant of Rana Sanga, a Sisodia ruler who fought Babur in the Battle of Khanwa in 1527. He had the highest ritual position of all the Rajput rulers and chieftains in India as the head of the Sisodia clan. The Mughals' imperial authority would be weakened in Rajput eyes until Udai Singh was brought to surrender. Furthermore, Akbar was still fervently committed to the cause of Islam at this time, and he wished to impress the supremacy of his faith over the most illustrious fighters of Brahminical Hinduism. In 1567, Akbar ordered the Chittor Fort in Mewar to be reduced. Mewar's fortress capital was strategically important since it was on the quickest route from Agra to Gujarat and was also vital to holding Rajputana's interior. Udai Singh retired to the Mewar hills, leaving his capital's defence in the hands of two Rajput warriors, Jaimal and Patta. After a four-month siege, Chittorgarh surrendered in February 1568. Akbar ordered the remaining defenders and 30,000 non-combatants killed and their heads exhibited on towers erected throughout the province to demonstrate his dominance. The Mughals distributed the loot that had fallen into their hands throughout the empire. He stayed in Chittorgarh for three days before returning to Agra. He erected statues of Jaimal and Patta mounted on elephants at the entrance of his fort to commemorate the victory. The power and influence of Udai Singh were shattered. He never left his Mewar mountain shelter again, and Akbar was content to leave him alone. In 1568, a Mughal siege against the Ranthambore Fort followed the surrender of Chittorgarh. The Hada Rajputs held Ranthambore, which was said to be India's most strong fortress. It did, however, fall after a few months. Almost all of Rajputana was now under Akbar's control. The Mughals had captured most of the Rajput monarchs. Only the Mewar clans remained defiant. Pratap Singh, Udai Singh's son and successor, was defeated by the Mughals in the Battle of Haldighati in 1576. In 1569, Akbar will construct the foundations of a new city 23 miles west of Agra to commemorate his conquest of Rajputana. Fatehpur Sikri was the name of the city. During the reign of Akbar, Rana Pratap Singh, on the other hand, continued to attack the Mughals and keep most of his ancestors' realm.

Takeover of Western and Eastern India

The conquest of Gujarat and Bengal, which connected India to the commerce centres of Asia, Africa, and Europe via the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal, respectively, were Akbar's next military targets. Furthermore, Gujarat had been a shelter for rebellious Mughal lords, while the Afghans continued to wield enormous power in Bengal under Sulaiman Khan Karrani's authority. Gujarat, which nestled in the crook between the Mughal territories of Rajputana and Malwa, was Akbar's first target. Gujarat had areas of high agricultural production in its central plain, an amazing output of textiles and other industrial items, and India's busiest seaports, thanks to its coastline districts. Akbar aimed to connect his marine realm to the vast wealth of the Indo-Gangetic plains. Though, the ostensive casus belli was that the rebel Mirzas, who had been forced out of India previously, were now operating out of a base in southern Gujarat. In addition, Akbar had received offers from Gujarati cliques to depose the reigning king, which provided his military mission. He occupied Ahmedabad, the capital, and other northern cities in 1572 and was declared the legal ruler of Gujarat. By 1573, he had forced out the Mirzas, who had fled to the Deccan after offering little opposition. Surat, the region's commercial powerhouse, and other coastal cities quickly fell to the Mughals. Muzaffar Shah III, the king, was discovered hiding in a cornfield and was granted a tiny pension by Akbar. After establishing his dominance over Gujarat, Akbar went to Fatehpur Sikiri, where he constructed the Buland Darwaza to commemorate his conquests. Still, a mutiny led by Afghan nobility backed by the Rajput ruler of Idar and fresh Mirza intrigues forced him back to Gujarat. In eleven days, Akbar crossed Rajputana and arrived in Ahmedabad, a voyage that would ordinarily take six weeks. The outstripped Mughal army then won a decisive victory on 2 September 1573. Akbar assassinated the rebel leaders and built a tower from their severed heads. Gujarat's invasion and subjection proved extremely profitable for the Mughals; after expenses, the area brought more than five million rupees per year to Akbar's treasury. Most of the Afghan remnants in India had been defeated by Akbar. Sulaiman Khan Karrani, an Afghan chief whose family had served under Sher Shah Suri, was now the only centre of Afghan power in Bengal. While Sulaiman Khan was careful not to offend Akbar, his son Daud Khan, who succeeded him in 1572, made the opposite decision. Unlike Sulaiman Khan, who had the khutba read in Akbar's name and acknowledged Mughal power, Daud Khan wore the symbol of royalty and had the khutba read in his name, defying Akbar. The Mughal ruler of Bihar, Munim Khan, was ordered to punish Daud Khan, but Akbar later travelled to Bengal himself. This was an opportunity for the Mughals to gain control of eastern commerce. In 1574, the Mughals detained Patna from Daud Khan, who fled to Bengal. Akbar retreated to Fatehpur Sikri and delegated the campaign to his generals. In 1575, the Mughal army won the Battle of Tukaroi, resulting in the acquisition of Bengal and parts of Bihar that had previously been under Daud Khan's control. As a Mughal fief, only Orissa was left in the hands of the Karrani family. Daud Khan, however, rebelled a year later and attempted to reclaim Bengal. He was beaten by Khan Jahan Quli, a Mughal general, and forced to escape into exile. Mughal armies later seized and executed Daud Khan. His limbs were gibbeted in Tandah, the Mughal capital of Bengal, and his severed head was sent to Akbar.

Movements in Afghanistan and Central Asia

Akbar was busy with home matters following his victories of Gujarat and Bengal. He did not pull out of Fatehpur Sikri on a soldierly movement until 1581, when his brother, Mirza Muhammad Hakim, attacked Punjab once more. After deporting his brother to Kabul, Akbar pressed on, determined to end Muhammad Hakim's menace once and for all. Unlike his forefathers, who had difficulty persuading Mughal nobility to remain in India, today's problem was persuading them to depart. The soldiers were paid eight months ahead of schedule. Akbar conquered Kabul in August 1581 and moved into Babur's ancient stronghold. In his brother's absence, who had escaped into the mountains, he stayed there for three weeks. Akbar returned to India, leaving Kabul in the hands of his sister, Bakht-un-Nisa Begum. He pardoned his brother, who took over the Mughal authority in Kabul de facto; Bakht-un-Nis remained the nominal Governor. Muhammad Hakim died a few years later, in 1585, and Kabul fell back into Akbar's hands. The Mughal Empire formally recognised it as a province. The Kabul expedition marked the start of a long period of activity along the empire's northern borders. In 1585, Akbar remained in the north for thirteen years, relocating his capital to Lahore in Punjab and dealing with threats beyond the Khyber Pass. The Uzbeks, the clan that had pushed his grandfather, Babur, out of Central Asia, posed the greatest threat. Abdullah Khan Shaybanid led them, a skilled military commander who had wrested Badakhshan and Balkh from Akbar's distant Timurid kin and whose Uzbek warriors now constituted a major threat to the Mughal Empire's northwestern frontiers. The Afghan peoples on the border were also uneasy, partially because of the Yusufzai of Bajaur and Swat's antagonism and partly because of a new religious leader, Bayazid, the founder of the Roshaniyya sect. The Uzbeks were also suspected of assisting Afghans. In 1586, Akbar and Abdullah Khan reached an agreement in which the Mughals vowed to remain neutral during the Uzbek invasion of Safavid-controlled Khorasan. Abdullah Khan committed to desist from helping, subsidising, or sheltering Afghan tribes hostile to the Mughals in exchange. As a result of his liberation, Akbar embarked on a series of campaigns to appease the Yusufzais and other insurgents. Zain Khan was given the task of leading an expedition against the Afghan tribes by Akbar. The military command was also granted to Raja Birbal, a well-known minister in Akbar's court. The voyage was a failure, and Birbal and his companions were attacked and killed by Afghans at the Malandarai Pass in February 1586 while retreating from the Himalayas. Under the command of Raja Todar Mal, Akbar promptly raised additional soldiers to retake the Yusufzai territory. The Mughals encircled the Yusufzai in the mountain valleys for the next six years, forcing numerous chiefs in Swat and Bajaur to submit. To safeguard the territory, dozens of forts were erected and manned. Akbar's retaliation revealed his capacity to maintain tight military control over Afghan tribes. Despite his agreement with the Uzbeks, Akbar harboured a secret desire to retake Central Asia from Afghanistan. Badakshan and Balkh, on the other hand, remained firmly in Uzbek hands. Under his grandson, Shah Jahan, the Mughals only occupied the two provinces for a short time in the mid-17th century. Despite this, Akbar's stay at the northern boundaries proved to be extremely productive. By 1600, the last of the hostile Afghan tribes had been subjugated. The Roshaniyya movement was violently put down. The Roshaniyyas had conquered the Afridi and Orakzai tribes, who had risen against them. The movement's leaders were apprehended and forced into exile. Jalaluddin, the son of Bayazid, the founder of the Roshaniyya movement, was slain in a battle with Mughal troops near Ghazni in 1601. Mughal dominance over today's Afghanistan was finally safe, especially after the Uzbek menace was removed with Abdullah Khan's death in 1598.

Conquests in the Indus Valley

While dealing with the Uzbeks in Lahore, Akbar tried to subjugate the Indus valley to safeguard the frontier provinces. When Ali Shah, the reigning king of the Shia Chak dynasty, declined to send his son as a prisoner to the Mughal court in 1585, he dispatched an army to seize Kashmir in the upper Indus basin. Although Ali Shah surrendered to the Mughals almost away, Yaqub declared himself king and launched a tenacious struggle against the Mughal army. Finally, in June 1589, Akbar travelled from Lahore to Srinagar to accept Yaqub and his rebel forces' surrender. The Tibetan provinces of Baltistan and Ladakh, which bordered Kashmir, pledged their loyalty to Akbar. In the lower Indus valley, the Mughals also moved to capture Sindh. The northern citadel of Bhakkar has been under imperial hands since 1574. In 1586, the Mughal Governor of Multan attempted but failed to win Mirza Jani Beg's capitulation as the independent ruler of Thatta in southern Sindh. Akbar retaliated by sending a Mughal force to besiege Sehwan, the region's river capital. To face the Mughals, Jani Beg gathered a huge army. At the Battle of Sehwan, the Mughal soldiers outnumbered the Sindhi army. Jani Beg capitulated to the Mughals in 1591 after further setbacks and paid respect to Akbar in Lahore in 1593.

Subjugation of parts of Baluchistan

About a half-dozen Baluchi leaders who were still nominally under Pani Afghan control had been convinced to attend the imperial court and recognise Akbar's vassalage as early as 1586. In 1595, Akbar ordered the Mughal armies to seize the remaining of the Afghan-held areas of Baluchistan to capture Kandahar from the Safavids. Mir Masum, a Mughal general, led an attack on Sibi, a stronghold northwest of Quetta, and beat a coalition of local chieftains in a pitched battle. As a result, they were obligatory to accept Mughal sovereignty and appear before Akbar's court. As a result, the Mughal Empire absorbed the modern-day Pakistani and Afghan regions of Baluchistan and the vital province of Makran that sat within it. On three sides, the Mughals bordered Persian-ruled Kandahar.

Safavids and Kandahar

Arab historians gave the ancient Indian kingdom of Gandhara the name Kandahar. It had been linked to the Mughals from their forefather, Timur, the 14th-century warlord who occupied considerable of Western, Central, and parts of South Asia. The Safavids, on the other hand, saw it as an appanage of the Persian-ruled Khorasan and deemed the Mughal emperors' affiliation with them to be a usurper. While Akbar was cementing his dominance over northern India in 1558, Tahmasp I, the Safavid emperor, conquered Kandahar and ousted the Mughal Governor. It remained under Persian authority for the next thirty years. After his prolonged military operations on the northern boundaries, an effort to restore Mughal sovereignty over the region became desirable. The conquests of Sindh, Kashmir, and sections of Baluchistan and Mughal power's gradual consolidation over today's Afghanistan had bolstered Akbar's confidence. Furthermore, the Uzbeks were threatening Kandahar at the time, but the Emperor of Persia, who was himself besieged by Ottoman Turks, could not send reinforcements. Thus, the Mughals were favoured by the circumstances. After a feud with his family, Akbar received the exiled Safavid prince Rostam Mirza in 1593. Rostam Mirza swore allegiance to the Mughals and was given the title of commander of 5000 men (mansab) and Multan as a jagir. Mozaffar Hosayn, the Safavid prince and Governor of Kandahar, agreed to switch to the Mughals after being harassed by Uzbek incursions and observing Rostom Mirza's reception at the Mughal court. Mozaffar Hosayn, who had already been at odds with his overlord, Shah Abbas, was given a line of 5000 men, and his daughter Kandahari Begum married Akbar's grandson, the Mughal prince Khurram. With the arrival of a garrison led by Mughal general Shah Bayg Khan in 1595, Kandahar was finally secured. The reconquest of Kandahar did not explicitly disrupt the Mughal-Persian relationship. Ambassadors and gifts continued to be exchanged between Akbar and the Persian Shah. However, the power balance between the two had shifted in the Mughals' favour.

Deccan Sultans

Akbar launched military operations against the Deccan Sultans who had refused to submit to his authority in 1593. In 1595, he aulted Ahmednagar Fort, compelling Chand Bibi to relinquish Berar. Following an uprising, Akbar was compelled to capture the fort in August 1600. When Miran Bahadur Shah refused to cede Khandesh, Akbar captured Burhanpur and besieged Asirgarh Fort in 1599, eventually taking it on 17 January 1601. Under Prince Daniyal, Akbar established the Subahs of Ahmadnagar, Berar, and Khandesh. Akbar ruled over a vast swath of land stretching from the Bay of Bengal to Qandahar and Badakshan when he died in 1605. In Sind and Surat, he touched the western sea, and he was comfortably astride central India.

Political Government

The central government of Akbar was based on that of the Delhi Sultanate, but the functions of numerous departments were thoroughly reorganised by laying down comprehensive norms for their operation. A wazir was in charge of the revenue department, which was in charge of all finances and the management of jagir and inam territories. The military commander was known as the Mir Bakshi, and he was chosen from among the court's most powerful nobles. The mir Bakshi was in charge of information gathering and made the military appointment and promotion recommendations to the Emperor. The imperial household, including the harems, was under the command of the mir saman, who also oversaw the court and royal bodyguard. Finally, the judiciary was its entity, led by a chief qazi who was also in charge of religious beliefs and practices.

Taxation

By adopting a system employed by Sher Shah Suri, Akbar set about overhauling the management of his empire's land revenue. A farmed area with good crop growth was measured and taxed using predetermined rates based on the yield and productivity of the region. However, the peasantry suffered because tax rates were set based on prices in the imperial court, which were frequently higher than those in the countryside. Akbar switched to a decentralised annual assessment system, but it was abandoned in 1580 due to corruption among local authorities and was replaced with a system known as the dahsala. The new approach computed revenue as one-third of the ten-year average produce, then paid to the state in cash. Later, the approach was improved by factoring in local costs and grouping areas with similar productivity into assessment rings. In addition, peasants were offered remission when the harvest failed due to floods or drought. Raja Todar Mal, who also worked as a revenue commissioner under Sher Shah Suri and laid out the organisation of the revenue administration in a thorough memorandum delivered to the Emperor in 1582–83, is credited with developing Akbar's dahsala system (also known as zabti). In other regions, other local assessment systems were used. Concessional rates were applied to land that was fallow or uncultivated. Akbar was also a strong supporter of agricultural development and expansion. However, the village remained to be the major revenue-gathering unit. Every area's zamindar was supposed to give loans and agricultural implements in times of need and urge farmers to plough as much land as possible and sow high-quality crops. In exchange, the zamindars received a hereditary right to a portion of the harvest. As long as they compensated the land revenue, peasants had a hereditary right to cultivate the land. While the revenue assessment system expressed compassion for the tiny peasants, it also fostered mistrust of revenue officials. Only three-quarters of a revenue official's income was guaranteed, with the remaining quarter contingent on the full realisation of the revenue assessed.

Military Group

The mansabdari system was used by Akbar to organise his army and the nobility. Each officer in the army was given a rank and a specific number of cavalry to supply to the imperial army under this arrangement. There were 33 different classes of mansabdars. Princes were usually assigned to the top three commanding ranks, which ranged from 7000 to 10,000 men. Other members of the nobility were given ranks ranging from 10 to 5000. The empire's permanent standing army was limited, and the imperial forces were largely made up of mansabdars' contingents. People were usually assigned to a low mansab and subsequently elevated based on their merit and the Emperor's favour. Each mansabdar was expected to keep a specific number of cavalrymen and twice as many horses. Because horses had to be rested and replaced quickly during wartime, the number of horses was higher. Akbar took severe pains to guarantee that the armed forces were of the highest quality; horses were constantly inspected, and only Arabian horses were usually used. The mansabdars were generously compensated for their services, and they were the world's highest-paid military service at the time.

Capital

Akbar was a devotee of Salim Chishti, a holy man from the Sikri district near Agra. He had a mosque built there for the priest's use since he thought the place was lucky for him. He commemorated his triumphs over Chittor and Ranthambore by erecting a new walled capital 23 miles west of Agra in 1569, which was called Fatehpur after the conquest of Gujarat in 1573 and later became known as Fatehpur Sikri to distinguish it from other towns with similar names. Palaces were built for each of Akbar's senior queens, a massive artificial lake, and luxurious water-filled patios. The city was abandoned soon after, and the capital was relocated to Lahore in 1585. It's possible that the reason was that Fatehpur Sikri's water supply was insufficient or of low quality. Or, as some historians say, Akbar needed to focus on his empire's northwest regions. Therefore he relocated his capital to the northwest. According to some reports, Akbar lost interest in the city or realised it could not be defended militarily. Akbar moved his capital back to Agra in 1599, where he ruled until his death.

Trade

Commercial growth was a hallmark of Akbar's reign. The Mughal government subsidised traders, provided protection and security for transactions, and imposed a low customs duty to foster international trade. It also aimed to create a business-friendly environment by compelling local officials to compensate traders for products stolen while on their territory. To prevent such occurrences, rahdars, or highway police, were employed to monitor roadways and secure the safety of traders. Construction and safeguarding of trade and communication routes were among the other active actions adopted. Indeed, Akbar would undertake significant attempts to construct roads so that wheeled vehicles could pass via the Khyber Pass, the most popular route for traders and travellers travelling from Kabul to Mughal India. He also strategically conquered the Punjabi cities of Multan and Lahore, building huge forts like as the one at Attock near the Grand Trunk Road and the Indus River, as well as a network of lesser forts known as thanas across the border to secure the overland trade with Persia and Central Asia.

Coins

When it came to coinage, Akbar was a true innovator. Akbar's coinage was a turning point in India's numismatic antiquity. The coins of Akbar's grandpa, Babur, and father, Humayun, are simple and lacking in novelty, as the former was occupied laying the foundations of Mughal power in India. At the same time, the latter was deposed by the Afghan, Sher Shah Suri, and returned to the authority only to die a year later. While Babur's and Humayun's reigns were turbulent, Akbar's relatively extended reign of 50 years allowed him to experiment with coinage. Coins with ornate floral designs, dotted borders, quatrefoil, and other varieties were introduced by Akbar. His coins were round and square in design, with a special 'Mehrab' lozenge-shaped coin showcasing the best of numismatic calligraphy. The minting and presentation of gold Mohurs having Akbar's face are attributed to his son, Prince Salim (later Emperor Jahangir). The latter had rebelled and then sought reconciliation by minting and presenting gold Mohurs bearing Akbar's portrait. The tolerant view of Akbar is reflected by the 'Ram-Sita' silver coin type, while coins depicting the concept of Akbar's newly proclaimed religion 'Din-e-ilahi' are represented by the Ilahi type and Jalla Jalal-Hu type coins during the latter half of his reign. The coins left are examples of Akbar's creative concepts, which were improved and completed by his son, Jahangir, and far ahead by his grandson, Shah Jahan, and established the standard for Mughal currency.

Matrimonial Alliances

Marriages between Hindu princesses and Muslim rulers had been practised even beforehand Akbar's time, but in maximum cases, these marriages did not result in solid links between the families involved, and the ladies were lost to their families and did not return after marriage. However, in India, Akbar's matrimonial partnership policy signified a break from prior practice in that the marriage itself signalled the start of a new order of ties. Hindu Rajputs who married his Muslim father-in-law and brothers-in-law would be treated equally to his Muslim father-in-law and brothers-in-law in every way except being able to dine and pray with him or accept Muslim spouses. Except for a few proud elements who still regarded it a sign of disgrace, these Rajputs were made associates of his court, and their daughters' or sisters' marriage to a Muslim ceased to be a symbol of inferiority. Raja Bharmal of the minor kingdom of Amer, a Kacchwaha Rajput who had gone to Akbar's court shortly after the latter's accession, allied with the Emperor by marrying his daughter to him. Bharmal was elevated to a noble of great status in the imperial court, and his son Bhagwant Das and grandson Man Singh followed in his footsteps. Other Rajput kingdoms formed marriage relationships with Akbar, but matrimony was not a requirement for alliance formation. The Sisodiyas of Mewar and the Hadas of Ranthambore, two powerful Rajput clans, kept aloof. In another pivotal moment in Akbar's reign, Raja Man Singh I of Amber accompanied Akbar to Surjan Hada, the Hada leader, to ally. Surjan agreed to an alliance if Akbar agreed not to marry any of his daughters. Surjan was made a noble and given command of Garh-Katanga despite no marriage tie being formed. These alliances had a huge political impact. While some Rajput women who come in Akbar's harem converted to Islam, they were generally given full religious freedom. Their Hindu relatives formed a considerable part of the nobility and communicated the bulk of the common populace's ideas in the imperial court. The imperial court's interaction between Hindu and Muslim aristocrats resulted in exchanging ideas and merging the two civilisations. Furthermore, later Mughal generations constituted a fusion of Mughal and Rajput blood, cementing relations. As a result, the Rajputs became the Mughals' most powerful allies, and Rajput warriors and generals fought with Akbar's army in various operations, including the conquest of Gujarat in 1572. Because of Akbar's religious tolerance policy, employment in the imperial administration was open to all on merit, regardless of creed, and the empire's administrative services grew in power. Another version claims that Meherunnissa, Akbar's daughter, was smitten by Tansen and played a part in his arrival in Akbar's court. According to legend, Tansen converted to Islam from Hinduism on the eve of his marriage to Akbar's daughter.

Relations with the Portuguese

The Portuguese had erected several strongholds and factories on the western coast of the subcontinent by the time of Akbar's ascent in 1556. They essentially controlled navigation and sea trade in that region. All other trading objects were subject to the Portuguese terms and conditions due to this colonialism, which was detested by rulers and traders of the time, notably Bahadur Shah of Gujarat. After local officials told Akbar that the Portuguese had begun to exert influence in the Indian Ocean, the Mughal Empire invaded Gujarat. It gained its first access to the sea in 1572. As a result, although aware of the Portuguese's threat, Akbar was willing to seek a cartaz (authorisation) from them to cruise in the Persian Gulf region. Recognising the superior might of the Mughal army, the Portuguese chose diplomacy over combat at the first encounter of the Mughals and the Portuguese during the Siege of Surat in 1572. At Akbar's request, the Portuguese Governor dispatched an ambassador to build friendly relations. However, Akbar's attempts to buy and capture some of the Portuguese's compact artillery pieces failed, and he was unable to create the Mughal naval along the Gujarat coast. The Portuguese continued to assert their authority and strength in the Indian Ocean. Akbar was disturbed when he had to acquire a permit from the Portuguese before any ships from the Mughal Empire could embark on the Hajj pilgrimage to Mecca and Medina. He issued a firman in 1573, ordering Mughal administrative officers in Gujarat not to offend the Portuguese in the territory they controlled in Daman. The Portuguese, in turn, gave passes for Akbar's family members to perform Hajj in Mecca. The Portuguese referred to the ship's special status and the special treatment that its occupants would receive. Jesuits from Goa were invited to visit Akbar's court in September 1579.

Relations with the Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman Admiral Seydi Ali Reis visited the Mughal Emperor Humayun in 1555, while Akbar was still a child. During the early years of Akbar's reign, another Ottoman admiral, Kurtolu Hzr Reis, arrived on the Mughal Empire's coasts in 1569. During their Indian Ocean operations, these Ottoman admirals aimed to eliminate the Portuguese Empire's expanding dangers. During Akbar's reign, six documents addressed to Ottoman Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent has been sent. In 1576, Akbar dispatched a huge group of pilgrims, led by Khwaja Sultan Naqshbandi, Yahya Saleh, carrying 600,000 gold and silver pieces, 12,000 honorary Kaftans, and large quantities of rice. Akbar despatched a party to Hajj in October 1576, including his aunt Gulbadan Begum and his consort Salima, aboard two ships from Surat, one of which was an Ottoman ship, which arrived in Jeddah in 1577 and then went to Mecca and Medina. From 1577 through 1580, four more caravans were dispatched, carrying fine gifts for the rulers of Mecca and Medina. The imperial Mughal entourage spent over four years at Mecca and Medina, performing the Hajj four times. During this time, Akbar supported numerous destitute Muslims from the Mughal Empire on their pilgrimages and the fundamentals of the Qadiriyya Sufi Order's dervish lodge in the Hijaz.

Relations with the Safavid Family

The Safavids and the Mughals had a lengthy diplomatic relationship. The Safavid king Tahmasp I provided asylum to Humayun after his defeat by Sher Shah Suri forced him to abandon the Indian subcontinent. The Safavids, on the other hand, were Shiite Muslims, unlike the Sunni Mughals and Ottomans. The sovereignty of the city of Qandahar in the Hindukush area, which formed the border between the two empires, was one of the longest-running disputes between the Safavids and the Mughals. Due to its topography, the Hindukush region was militarily crucial, and strategists recognised this. As a result, in 1558, the Persian king Husain Mirza, a relative of Tahmasp I, stormed and seized the city, which Bairam Khan controlled at Akbar's accession. Following this, Bairam Khan dispatched an envoy to Tahmasp I's court to maintain amicable relations with the Safavids.

Relations with other Contemporary Kingdoms

According to Vincent Arthur Smith, the trader Mildenhall was hired in 1600, while the Company's foundation was being finalised, carrying a letter from Queen Elizabeth to Akbar requesting permission to trade in his dominions on conditions equal to those enjoyed by the Portuguese. Pierre Malherbe, a French explorer, visited Akbar.

Akbar and his mother and other family members are thought to have been Sunni Hanafi Muslims. His early years were consumed in an setting where liberal emotions were promoted, and religious narrow-mindedness was discouraged. From the 15th century onwards, some monarchs in various areas of the country embraced a more liberal religious tolerance policy to encourage communal harmony between Hindus and Muslims. These views were previously bolstered by prominent saints like Guru Nanak, Kabir, and Chaitanya, and the Persian poet Hafez's poetry, which emphasised human sympathy and a liberal worldview. As well as the Timurid culture of religious tolerance in the empire, which continued in the polity from Timur's period through Humayun's, and impacted Akbar's policy of religious tolerance.

Furthermore, Akbar's boyhood tutors, two of whom were Irani Shias, were substantially above sectarian preconceptions and contributed significantly to Akbar's eventual religious tolerance. Akbar encouraged religious dialogues amongst various Muslim sects, Parsis, Hindus, Sikhs, Jains, Jews, Jesuits, and Materialists. However, he was inclined to Sufism, proclaiming that the knowledge of Vedanta is the wisdom of Sufism. He had dialogues in Fatehpur Sikri because he was interested in learning about other people's religious ideas. On one such day, he discovered that religious people of different religions were frequently intolerant of those of other religions. As a significance, he came up with the awareness for a new religion, Sulh-e-kul, which means "worldwide peace." His religion was based on peace, unity, and tolerance principles and did not discriminate against other religions.

Association with the Muslim Aristocracy

During the early years of his reign, Akbar took a harsh stance against Muslim sects considered heretical by the orthodoxy. On the guidance of Shaikh Abdu'n Nabi, he ordered the exhumation of Mir Murtaza Sharifi Shirazi, a Shia buried in Delhi, due to the grave's nearness to that of Amir Khusrau, disagreeing that a misbeliever could not be buried so close to that of a Sunni saint, reflecting a restrictive attitude toward the Shia that lasted until the early 1570s. During his expedition to Gujarat in 1573, he repressed Mahdavism. The Mahdavi frontrunner Bandagi Miyan Sheik Mustafa was caught and brought chains to the court for discussion, only to be released after eighteen months. However, as Akbar became increasingly influenced by pantheistic Sufi mysticism in the early 1570s, his viewpoint shifted dramatically, culminating in his abandonment of traditional Islam favouring a new version of Islam that transcended religious boundaries. As a result, in the second half of his reign, he adopted a tolerance policy for Shias and declared a ban on Shia-Sunni violence. However, the empire remained neutral in internal sectarian conflict. A rebellion sprang out in the eastern section of Akbar's dominion in 1580, and Qazis issued several fatwas proclaiming Akbar a heretic. The insurrection was put down by Akbar, who punished the Qazis severely. In 1579, Akbar released a Mazhar, or declaration signed by all of the main ulemas to reinforce further his position in dealing with the Qazis.

Din-i-Ilahi

Religious and philosophical issues piqued Akbar's curiosity. He began as an orthodox Muslim but eventually became affected by the Sufi mysticism preached in the kingdom and turned away from orthodoxy, appointing to his court several skilled liberals such as Abul Fazl, Faizi, and Birbal. He erected the Ibadat Khana at Fatehpur Sikri in 1575, to which he summoned theologians, mystics, and selected courtiers famous for their intellectual talents and with whom he debated spiritual subjects. These debates, which were first limited to Muslims, were heated, with participants shouting at and cursing. Disturbed by this, Akbar extended the Ibadat Khana to people of all faiths, including atheists, resulting in the scope of the talks expanding to include topics such as the Quran's authenticity and the nature of God. These astounded orthodox scholars tried to discredit Akbar by spreading rumours that he wanted to abandon Islam. Akbar's attempt to create a meeting ground for representatives of various religions failed miserably, as each of them strove to show the superiority of their own beliefs by criticising others. Meanwhile, the arguments at the Ibadat Khana became increasingly heated. Instead of leading to greater understanding among religions, they led to increased hatred, ending in Akbar's decision to end the debates in 1582. However, his interactions with other religious scholars convinced him that, despite their differences, all religions had some excellent practices. Therefore, he wanted to unite into the Din-i-Ilahi religious movement.

Relation with Hindus

Hindus who had been compelled to convert to Islam were allowed to return to Hinduism without risking the death penalty, according to Akbar. He was so well-liked by Hindus during his days of tolerance that he is mentioned frequently in Hindu scriptures, and his eulogies are sung in songs and religious hymns. Akbar followed many Hindu rituals. He observed Diwali and allowed Brahman priests to bless him by tying jewelled threads around his wrists. Many nobility followed his lead and began wearing rakhi (protection charms). He abstained from eating beef and prohibited the sale of all meats on specific days. Many of Akbar's concessions were upheld by his son Jahangir and grandson Shahjahan, including the ban on cow slaughter, eating only vegetarian dishes on certain days of the week, and drinking only Ganges water. The water was bottled in huge jars and sent to him even though he was 200 kilometres away from the Ganges. He referred to the Ganges water as "immortal water."

Relation with Jains

Akbar spoke with Jain teachers regularly and deeply influenced some of their beliefs. After a six-month fast, he watched a procession of a Jain Shravaka named Champa, which was his first interaction with Jain ceremonies. After being impressed by her power and devotion, he invited her guru, or spiritual instructor, Acharya Hiravijaya Suri, to Fatehpur Sikri. Acharya accepted the invitation and set out from Gujarat on a march to the Mughal capital. The Acharya's literary talents and personality pleased Akbar. In addition, he held several interfaith talks with intellectuals from many religions. For example, he became a vegetarian after listening to Jains' reasons against eating meat. Akbar also enacted many imperial orders that benefited Jain interests, such as prohibiting the slaughter of animals.

Personality

In Akbarnama and Ain-i-Akbari, his court historian Abul Fazl recounted Akbar's rule in great detail. Badayuni, Shaikhzada Rashidi, and Shaikh Ahmed Sirhindi are among more contemporary sources for Akbar's rule. Akbar was a warrior, monarch, commander, animal trainer, and theologian who is said to have kept thousands of hunting cheetahs throughout his reign and trained many of them himself. He was read to every day and had a phenomenal memory, despite being suspected of being dyslexic. Akbar was a smart monarch and a good judge of character, according to legend. Jahangir, his son and heir, offered effusive praise of Akbar's character and thousands of incidents to highlight his merits in his memoirs. According to Jahangir, Akbar had a wheat-coloured complexion, black eyes and eyebrows, and a dark complexion rather than a fair complexion.

Hagiography

During Akbar's reign, a continuous process of inter-religious dialogue and syncretism culminated in a sequence of religious attributions to him in terms of assimilation, doubt, or hesitation, which he either supported or ignored. Apart from current narratives by Brahminical and Muslim orthodoxy, such hagiographical accounts of Akbar traversed a wide variety of denominational and sectarian settings, including multiple stories by Parsis, Jains, and Jesuit missionaries. Nevertheless, existing sects and denominations and religious leaders who represented popular adoration all claimed ownership of him. His rule resulted in the development of a flexible centralised state accompanied by personal authority, and cultural pluralism is credited with the diversity of these tales.

Princess Ruqaiya Sultan Begum, the sole daughter of his paternal uncle, Prince Hindal Mirza, and his wife Sultanam Begum, was Akbar's first wife and principal consort. Hindal Mirza died valiantly in a battle against Kamran Mirza's soldiers in 1551. Humayun was overcome with grief when he learned of his brother's death. Humayun wedded Hindal's nine-year-old daughter Ruqaiya to his son Akbar out of compassion for his brother's memory. Their marriage took place in Kabul, shortly after Akbar was appointed viceroy of the Ghazni region. Humayun bestowed all of Hindal and Ghazni's wealth, army, and supporters onto the imperial couple, with one of Hindal's jagir being granted to his nephew, Akbar. The latter was appointed ruler and given leadership of his uncle's army. When both of them were 14 years old, Akbar married Ruqaiya near Jalandhar, Punjab. She adopted Prince Khurram, Akbar's favourite grandson, despite being childless herself. On 19 January 1626, she died.

Abdullah Khan Mughal's daughter was his second wife. During the siege of Mankot in 1557, the couple married. Bairam Khan was against the union since Abdullah's sister was married to Akbar's uncle, Prince Kamran Mirza, and Bairam saw Abdullah as a Kamran supporter. He objected to the match until Nasir-al-Mulk made it clear that such opposition was unacceptable. Nasir-al-Mulk planned a pleasure assembly and banquet of delight, as well as a regal feast. Salima Sultan Begum, the daughter of Nur-ud-din Muhammad Mirza and his wife Gulrukh Begum, commonly known as Gulrang, the daughter of Emperor Babur, became his third wife. Humayun had her betrothed to Bairam Khan at first.

Following Bairam Khan's death in 1561, Akbar married her the following year. On 2 January 1613, she died childlessly. He married the daughter of Raja Bharmal, the ruler of Amer, in 1562. The marriage took place while Akbar returned from Ajmer after paying his respects to Moinuddin Chishti's mausoleum. Bharmal had informed Akbar that his brother-in-law Sharif-ud-din Mirza, the Mughal hakim of Mewat, was harassing him. Bharmal was ordered to surrender to Akbar personally, and his daughter was advised to be married to him as a gesture of complete submission. After giving birth to Akbar's firstborn surviving son, Prince Salim, she was given Mariam-uz-Zamani (the future Emperor Jahangir). On 19 May 1623, she died. In the same year, Akbar married Abdul Wasi's previous wife. Abdul Wasi was ordered to divorce her by Akbar, who had fallen in love with her. Gauhar-un-Nissa Begum was another of his wives. Din Laqab was their dynasty, and they had lived at Chandwar and Jalesar near Agra for a long time. She was Akbar's most important wife. His third marriage took place in 1564 when he married the daughter of Khandesh's monarch, Miran Mubrak Shah. In 1564, he brought gifts to the court with a request that Akbar marries his daughter. The request of Miran was granted, and an order was issued. Itimad Khan was dispatched with Miran's envoy, and when he arrived at the fort of Asir, Miran's palace, he was killed. Miran greeted Itimad with respect and dispatched his daughter along with him. A large number of nobles accompanied her. When she arrived at Akbar's court in September 1564, she married. Mubarak Shah gave his imperial son-in-law Bijagarh and Handia a dowry. In 1570, he married another Rajput princess, the daughter of Kahan, Rai Kalyan Mal Rai's brother and the lord of Bikanir. When Akbar arrived in this section of the country in 1570, they married. Kalyan paid honour to Akbar by requesting that he marry his brother's daughter. The marriage was planned when Akbar accepted his proposal. In 1570, he married the daughter of Jaisalmer's monarch, Rawal Har Rai. Rawal had sent Akbar a letter requesting that his daughter marry him. Akbar agreed to accept the idea. On this mission, Raja Bahgwan Das was dispatched. Following Akbar's return from Nagor, the marriage ceremony went conducted. Princess Mahi Begum, who expired on 8 April 1577, was her daughter.

Bhakkari Begum was another of his wives. I'timad Khan, Akbar's emissary, arrived at Mahmud's court on 2 July 1572 to take his daughter to Akbar. Sultan Mahmud received a magnificent honour garment, a bejewelled scimitar-belt, a horse with a saddle and reins, and four elephants from I'timad Khan. Mahmud commemorated the event by throwing lavish feasts for fifteen days. The festivities reached their pinnacle on the wedding day, and the ulema, saints, and nobles were duly rewarded. I'timad Khan was given 30,000 rupees in cash and kind by Mahmud, who gave his daughter a magnificent dowry and an attractive entourage. She arrived at Ajmer and awaited Akbar. The ladies of the imperial harem received Sultan Mahmud's presents, which were carried by the delegation. Qasima Banu Begum, the daughter of Arab Shah, was his ninth wife. In 1575, the couple married. The top officers and other pillars of the state were present, and a large feast was served. The Rajah of Dungarpur State petitioned for his daughter to be married to Akbar in 1577. Because of his loyalty, Akbar granted his request. Rai Loukaran and Rajah Birbar, the Rajah's attendants, dispatched Dihalpur to carry his daughter. The two brought the lady to Akbar's court, where they married on 12 July 1577.

Bibi Daulat Shad was his ninth wife. Royalty Shakr-un-Nissa Begum and Princess Aram Banu Begum, both born on 22 December 1584, were her children. His next bride was the Kashmiri daughter of Shams Chak. On 3 November 1592, the couple married. Shams belonged to the country's great men, and he had long wished for this. He married the daughter of Qazi Isa, who was Najib Khan's cousin, in 1593. Najib informed Akbar that his uncle had produced a present for him from his daughter. On 3 July 1593, Akbar accepted his representation and went to Najib Khan's residence to marry Qazi Isa's daughter. Rukmavati daughter of Rao Maldev of Marwar entered his harem at some point. This was a dolo union, rather than a formal marriage, to symbolise the bride's lesser rank in her father's household and signify vassalage to an overlord. The date of this occurrence is unknown.

Akbar suffered a bout of dysentery on 3 October 1605, from which he never fully recovered. He is thought to have died on 27 October 1605 and was interred in his mausoleum in Sikandra, Agra.

Akbar left a lasting legacy for both the Mughal Empire and the Indian subcontinent as a whole. After being threatened by the Afghans during his father's reign, he firmly established the Mughal Empire's rule in India and abroad, consolidating its military and diplomatic superiority. During his tenure, the state's nature shifted to secular and liberal, with a focus on cultural inclusion. He also instituted several forward-thinking social reforms, such as banning sati, legalising widow remarriage, and raising marriage. In India, folk tales about him and one of his navratnas, Birbal, are popular.